http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Violencia_dom%C3%A9stica
Sezione in Wikipedia: Violenza domestica – Testo:
(…) In una raccolta pubblicata nel 2009, Javier Alverez Deca presenta i risultati di 230 studi empirici internazionali sulla violenza di coppia, realizzati nel corso degli ultimi 30 anni in 24 paesi. Tutti questi studi compiono il requisito essenziale di valutare il comportamento di entrambi i partner nella coppia eterosessuale. Secondo le conclusioni di tale pubblicazione, la violenza fisica è esercitata in proporzioni simili da uomini e donne, e spesso iniziata per primo dalle donne. Lo stesso autore ha prodotto una raccolta di 58 studi sulla violenza nella coppia, tutti pubblicati nel 2009, i cui risultati coincidono con la raccolta precedente. Pertanto, appare evidente la sfasatura creatasi tra le conclusioni della comunità scientifica, che riscontra la bidirezionalità della violenza nella coppia, e le politiche attuali, basate sul paradigma di genere.
JAVIER ALVAREZ DECA, studioso della violenza di genere ha pubblicato:
LA VIOLENCIA EN LA PAREJA: BIDIRECCIONAL Y SIMETRICA: ANALISIS COMPARATIVO DE 230 ESTUDIOS CIENTIFICOS INTERNACIONALES
(La violenza nella coppia: bidirezionale e simmetrica: analisi comparativo di 230 studi scientifici internazionali)
http://www.absurdistan.eu/luz_bajo_celemin_2009.pdf
Il titolo di questo lavoro – tra l’altro privo di qualsiasi connotazione religiosa - fa eco alle parole di Gesù: "Si prende forse la candela per metterla sotto il vaso o sotto il letto? Non la si prende invece per metterla sul candeliere? Poiché non vi è nulla che sia nascosto se non per essere manifestato; e nulla è stato tenuto segreto, se non per essere messo in luce. Se uno ha orecchi per udire oda» (Marco 4:21-23).
Non si poteva trovare un titolo migliore di questo per riassumere lo stato attuale degli studi scientifici sulla violenza di coppia.
La prima grande indagine sulla violenza domestica, condotta da Straus, Gelles e Steinmetz nel 1975 negli Stati Uniti, diede già allora dei risultati inattesi e del tutto incoerenti con la tesi dell’ideologia trionfante, e dimostrò che tanto gli uomini quanto le donne esercitavano violenza sul partner in proporzioni simili. Da allora, centinaia di studi scientifici, basati su campioni compositi di uomini e donne, rappresentativi della popolazione, hanno confermato questa conclusione in maniera inconfutabile.
Inoltre, sono sempre più studi ad indagare sulla violenza offensiva o difensiva nella relazione di coppia. La conclusione quasi unanime di questi studi è che la donna è l’iniziatrice principale dell’aggressione fisica nella coppia, smentendo il mito radicato del carattere puramente difensivo della violenza femminile. [1]
Tuttavia, chi conosce questi studi? Come vengono pubblicizzati dai media e dalla politica? Senza dubbio hanno richiesto sforzo, conoscenze e risorse; e sono stati fatti, con risultati coincidenti, in molti paesi. Insieme rappresentano una vera e propria mappa del mondo della violenza domestica. Ma il loro riconoscimento sociale e politico è molto lontano dai loro meriti e dalle loro utilità potenziali. La loro diffusione si limita principalmente agli ambienti specializzati e raramente attraversa la barriera, apparentemente insormontabile, della correttezza politica ed del tornaconto elettorale. Questi studi obiettivi ed imparziali sono la luce che dovrebbe essere sul candelabro come riferimento per la formulazione di politiche e l'adozione di leggi sulla violenza domestica. Tuttavia, nel corso dei decenni, sono stati relegati nell’ultimo piano, nel dimenticatoio. Essi sono la lampada che, assurdamente o per interesse, è messa sotto il vaso.
Questo elaborato raccoglie i risultati di 58 studi sulla violenza di coppia pubblicati nel 2009. Anche se confinata in un lasso di tempo molto limitato, la raccolta non ha la pretesa di essere esaustiva. Un'ulteriore ricerca nelle principali banche-dati utilizzate, [2] o da altre fonti, permetterebbe, quasi certamente, di trovare molti altri studi pubblicati nello stesso anno e con risultati analoghi. Gli studi sono stati selezionati sulla base di un unico criterio: che tengano conto del comportamento di entrambi i partner, maschio e femmina.
In questa raccolta, i tassi simili di violenza di entrambi i partner sono il risultato predominante (31 studi); il secondo risultato più frequente è il più elevato tasso di violenza femminile (22 studi); e solo cinque di questi studi divergono da questi dati e mostrano livelli di violenza maschile più elevati: il n° 40 (realizzato su un campione di coppie in terapia per problemi psicologici del maschio), il n° 48 (applicato ad un campione iraniano) e i nn. 26, 56, e 57 (che valutano la violenza esercitata o subita nel corso della vita degli intervistati). Questi ultimi tre studi riproducono il modello di quasi tutti gli studi che coprono un lungo periodo di tempo o la vita intera dei partecipanti. In questi casi, i livelli di vittimizzazione riportati dalle donne sono spesso superiori a quelli riportati dagli uomini, in contraddizione con gli studi più ravvicinati e meglio collocati nel tempo, e relativi a periodi più brevi e facili da ricordare. Dato che entrambi i risultati non possono essere veri, è logico dedurre che i risultati di studi di periodi più distanti e lunghi nel tempo sono meno affidabili e più condizionati dall'ideologia e dal clima sociale prevalente.
Inoltre, in nove studi (i nn. 3, 5, 13, 17, 23, 24, 40, 48 e 50) si prendono in esame gli aspetti dell’unilateralità e dell'avvio dell’aggressione. Il risultato più frequente è il simile tasso di aggressioni non reciproche o unilaterali in uomini e donne (quattro studi); il secondo risultato più frequente è il tasso più elevato di violenza unilaterale femminile (tre studi); e, infine, la violenza unilaterale maschile prevale nei due studi sopraccitati con un campione di uomini con problemi psicologici (n° 40) e il campione iraniano (n° 48).
Le conclusioni generali ottenute dopo la consultazione dei 58 studi qui presentati non differiscono da quelle esposte nella ricerca "La violenza di coppia: bidirezionale e simmetrica”, dove sono stati raccolti i risultati di 230 studi pubblicati prima del 2009. A questa ricerca, quindi rimando il lettore.
[1] Nel libro "La violencia en la pareja: bidireccional y simétrica" (J. Alvarez-Deca, Ed. AEMA, 2009) sono raccolti i risultati di 230 studi sulla violenza di coppia. 51 studi affrontano la questione dell’avvio della violenza, e le loro conclusioni sono le seguenti: 39 studi riscontrano tassi più elevati di violenza fisica non reciproca o iniziata da aggressione fisica femminile; 5 studi, tre di loro basati su campioni di coppie sottoposti a terapia coniugale, riscontrano più elevati tassi di violenza fisica non reciproca o iniziata da aggressione fisica maschile; e i 7 studi mancanti riscontrano tassi simile in entrambi i sessi.
[2] Le principali banche-dati o editoriali consultate sono state British Library, APA Databases, Sage Journals, ScienceDirect, Blackwell Publishing, Citeulike, Wiley Interscience, Cat.Inist, PubMed e Scielo.
Traduz. per CDVD a cura di Santiago G.
ANEXO
Estudios sobre la violencia en la pareja (2009)
1. Agreement on Reporting of Physical, Psychological, and Sexual Violence Among White, Black, and Hispanic Couples in the United States (Raul Caetano, Craig Field, Suhasini Ramisetty-Mikler y Sherry Lipsky) (Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2009; vol. 24; nº 8; pág. 1318-1337) - Estudio basado en las entrevistas realizadas por separado a los miembros de 1.025 parejas adultas de 48 estados de los Estados Unidos. Los datos, analizados en varios estudios anteriores, se presentan aquí desglosados por grupos étnicos (negros, blancos e hispanos). Los resultados de perpetración de violencia son similares para hombres y mujeres en los tres grupos étnicos. El promedio de las tasas de perpetración es del 13% para hombres y mujeres en el caso de la violencia física leve; y del 3,8% para las mujeres y del 3% para los hombres, en el caso de la violencia física grave (cuadro 1). (Estados Unidos, 2009)
2. Family Violence in Canada: A Statistical Profile 2009 (Statistics Canada, Canadian Centre For Justice Statistics, octubre de 2009) - Informe anual del departamento de estadística del Canadá sobre la violencia familiar, basado en las denuncias presentadas en los puestos de policía en 2007 y precedido de un estudio sobre la situación de los albergues para maltratadas. Según el informe, "la abrumadora mayoría de las víctimas de violencia de pareja siguen siendo las mujeres, que, en 2007, interpusieron más de 8 de cada 10 denuncias ante la policía, en comparación con el 17% correspondiente a los hombres". Sin embargo, al pormenorizar los tipos de violencia denunciada, las víctimas de violencia grave (con resultado de lesiones y heridas) fueron hombres en el 23% de los casos y mujeres en el 13% de los casos, debido, según el estudio, a la más frecuente utilización de armas por las mujeres. En el caso de la violencia leve (empujones, bofetadas, puñetazos e insultos), las mujeres representaron el 63% de las víctimas y los hombres el 61%. (Canadá, 2009)
3. Examining Symmetry in Intimate Partner Violence Among Young Adults Using Socio-Demographic Characteristics (Lynette M. Renner y Stephen D. Whitney) (Journal of Family Violence, 2009, DOI 10.1007/s10896-009-9273-0) - Estudio basado en una submuestra de la National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (NLSAH) integrada por 4.895 individuos (2.196 varones y 2.699 mujeres), de edades comprendidas entre los 18 y los 27 años (promedio: 22 años), que habían declarado experiencias de violencia en la pareja en la NLSAH. Se evaluaron los niveles de perpetración/victimización y unilateralidad/reciprocidad de la violencia de pareja. En cuanto a la violencia física recíproca, el 58,4% de las mujeres y el 59,8% de los hombres sufrieron agresiones; y el 28,2% de las mujeres y el 28,5% de los hombres sufrieron lesiones. En cuanto a la violencia física no recíproca, el 42,2% de las mujeres y el 45,2% de los hombres sufrieron agresiones, con sendos porcentajes del 10% de lesiones para hombres y mujeres. Y en cuanto a la violencia sexual (definida mediante la pregunta "¿Con qué frecuencia has insistido u obligado a tu pareja a tener relaciones sexuales cuando él/ella no quería?"), el 32,3% de las mujeres y el 31,8% de los hombres fueron víctimas de agresiones recíprocas; y el 27% de las mujeres y el 25% de los hombres fueron víctimas de agresiones no recíprocas. (Estados Unidos, 2009)
4. Prevalência e fatores associados à violência entre parceiros íntimos: um estudo de base populacional em Lages, Santa Catarina, Brasil, 2007 (Adriana Jaqueline Anacleto, Kathie Njaine, Giana Zarbato Longo, Antonio Fernando Boing y Karen Glazer Peres (Cadernos de Saúde Pública, Rio de Janeiro, 25(4):800-808, abril 2009) - Se entrevistó a 1.042 mujeres de edades comprendidas entre los 20 y los 59 años, que declararon sobre la violencia perpetrada por ellas y sus parejas masculinas durante los últimos 12 meses. Según sus declaraciones, los porcentajes perpetración de violencia verbal fueron del 76,8% para las mujeres y del 71,5% para los hombres; los porcentajes de perpetración de violencia física leve fueron del 13'7% para las mujeres y del 9,8% para los hombres; y los porcentajes de perpetración de violencia física grave fueron del 6,8% para las mujeres y del 5,6% para los hombres. (Brasil, 2009)
5. Violence between parents reported by male and female university students: prevalence,severity, chronicity and mutuality (Murray A Straus) (Journal of Aggression, Conflict and Peace Research, Vol. 1, Nº 1, abril 2009) - Estudio realizado sobre una muestra de 1.313 alumnos de la Universidad de New Hampshire (EE.UU.), de los que el 72% eran mujeres (en correspondencia con la composición por sexos de los cursos de Psicología) y que declararon sobre la violencia interparental presenciada en el hogar. En conjunto, las madres resultaron perpetradoras del 14,1% de la violencia global y del 6,9% de la violencia grave; y los padres resultaron perpetradores del 13% de la violencia global y del 7,5% de la violencia grave. En cuanto a la reciprocidad de la violencia, aunque la pauta más común fue la bidireccionalidad, la violencia unidireccional fue perpetrada en mayor medida por la madre. (Estados Unidos, 2009)
6. Nonviolent Aspects of Interparental Conflict and Dating Violence Among Adolescents (Jeanne M. Tschann, Lauri A. Pasch, Elena Flores, Barbara VanOss Marin, E. Marco Baisch and Charles J. Wibbelsman) (Journal of Family Issues, 2009, Vol. 30, Nº 3, págs. 295-319) - Estudio basado en las declaraciones de 223 jóvenes de 16 a 20 años, en el contexto de un estudio familiar con participación de padres y madres y seguimiento en varias etapas. En entrevistas celebradas a los 12 meses del estudio familiar inicial, los jóvenes que habían tenido pareja (n = 150, 52% mujeres) declararon sobre la violencia perpetrada y sufrida en los 6 meses anteriores, con el resultado siguiente: el 27% de las mujeres y el 24% de los hombres se declararon perpetradores de violencia física contra sus parejas; y el 22% de las mujeres y el 33% de los hombres se declararon víctimas de la violencia física ejercida por sus parejas. (Estados Unidos, 2009)
7. La prevención de la violencia en la relación amorosa entre adolescentes a través del taller «La Máscara del Amor» (Vicente Garrido Genovés y Mar Casas Tello) (Revista de Educación, 349. Mayo-agosto 2009, pp. 335-360) - Este estudio forma parte de un programa cuya idea directriz es "prevenir la violencia contra la mujer en las relaciones afectivas [...] sin que los alumnos varones se sientan estigmatizados". La muestra se compuso de 564 alumnos de 4º de ESO del municipio de Telde (Gran Canaria), de una edad media de 15,5 años y en la que el 57'9% fueron chicas. El programa fue aplicado por monitoras de la Concejalía de la Mujer del Ayuntamiento de Telde. Las chicas se declararon víctimas de abuso psicológico (insultos, humillaciones) en mayor proporción que los chicos. En cambio, los chicos sufrieron niveles notablemente superiores de agresiones físicas (bofetones y patadas). Los autores concluyen que "los chicos presentan un mayor abuso físico, probablemente porque en la cultura juvenil está muy mal visto ejercer la violencia física con las chicas, mientras que éstas hallan en la bofetada una conducta socialmente más apropiada. Como ya sabemos, en la edad adulta las tornas se cambian, y la violencia física más grave la pasan a ejercer los varones (Garrido, 2001)." [La fuente de autoridad a la que se refieren es la publicación: GARRIDO, Vicente: Amores que matan: Acoso y violencia contra las mujeres]. (España, 2009)
8. Self-reported juvenile delinquency in Finland 1995–2008 (National Research Institute of Legal Policy, Research Report No. 246, Helsinki 2009) - En el estudio se valoran, entre otros aspectos, las experiencias de violencia de pareja en adolescentes, sobre una muestra de 5.836 individuos. En conjunto, los chicos declaran niveles de victimización muy superiores a las chicas. El 9% de los chicos y el 2% de las chicas declaran haber sido golpeados con el puño o el pie, o con objetos duros, por sus parejas. El 22% de los chicos y el 6% de las chicas declaran haber sido abofeteados por sus parejas. (Finlandia, 2009)
9. A Cluster Analytic Investigation of School Violence Victimization Among Diverse Students (Erika D. Felix, Michael J. Furlong y Greg Austin) (Journal of Interpersonal Violence 2009; vol. 24; nº 10; pp. 1673-1695) - Estudio basado en los datos de la California Healthy Kids Survey, instrumento de vigilancia administrado a una muestra de 70.600 alumnos de enseñanza media del estado de California. A la pregunta "Durante los últimos 12 meses, ¿te ha agredido físicamente tu novio/novia?" respondieron afirmativamente el 5% de los chicos y el 4,3% de las chicas. (Estados Unidos, 2009)
10. Physical Dating Violence Norms and Behavior Among Sixth-Grade Students From Four U.S. Sites (Thomas R. Simon, Shari Miller, Deborah Gorman-Smith, Pamela Orpinas y Terri Sullivan) (Journal of Early Adolescence, 2009, doi: 10.1177/0272431609333301) - Estudio basado en una muestra de 5.404 adolescentes de sexto grado. Dentro del grupo que había tenido una relación sentimental durante los tres meses anteriores, el 31,4% de las chicas y el 26,4% de los chicos declararon haber perpetrado violencia física contra su pareja, mientras que el 53,7% de los chicos y el 27,4% de las chicas declararon haber sido víctimas de agresiones físicas perpetradas por sus parejas. En las preguntas se les pidió expresamente que excluyeran de sus declaraciones la violencia ejercida en defensa propia. (Estados Unidos, 2009)
11. Mental Health Correlates of Intimate Partner Violence in Marital Relationships in a Nationally Representative Sample of Males and Females (T.O. Afifi, H. MacMillan, B.J. Cox, G. Asmundson, M.B. Stein y J. Sareen) (Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2009, Vol. 24, Nº 8, págs. 1398-1417) - Datos procedentes de la National Comorbidity Survey de los Estados Unidos, obtenidos a partir de una muestra de 5.692 individuos representantiva de la población estadounidense. El 15,2% de las mujeres y el 20,3% de los hombres se declararon víctimas de la violencia perpetrada por su pareja actual. (Estados Unidos, 2009)
12. Violence against Children and Adolescents in Finland (Noora Ellonen, Juha Kääriäinen, Venla Salmi y Heikki Sariola) (National Research Institute of Legal Policy, 2009) - Resumen en inglés de la encuesta aplicada a una muestra nacionalmente representativa de alumnos de secundaria que, entre otros aspectos, declaran sobre la violencia presenciada en el hogar. Textualmente, las conclusiones son las siguientes: "Los hijos presencian violencia de la madre contra el padre o del padre contra la madre en igual medida. Estos resultados están en desacuerdo con el concepto de violencia de pareja predominante en Finlandia. En general, las medidas preventivas se han basado en el supuesto de que el perpetrador de la violencia es el hombre, y de que las mujeres y los niños son las víctimas... Los resultados de este estudio demuestran que la realidad no es tan simple. No sólo no existe diferencia significativa en cuanto a la violencia infligida a los hijos por el padre y la madre, sino que la violencia de pareja presenciada por los hijos se distribuye por igual entre ambos sexos." (Finlandia, 2009)
13. Prevalence and demographic correlates of intimate partner violence in Asian Americans (Doris F. Chang, Biing-Jiun Shen y David T. Takeuchi) (International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 32 (2009) 167–175) - Datos obtenidos a partir de una muestra de 1470 estadounideses adultos de origen asiático (707 hombres y 763 mujeres), casados o en convivencia con una pareja heterosexual. Una vez cruzados los porcentajes de perpetración y victimización declarados, la violencia global sufrida por las mujeres (12,4%) es inferior a la sufrida por los hombres (15,5%), y la violencia grave sufrida por las mujeres (1,6) es también inferior a la sufrida por los hombres (2,5). En cuanto a la iniciación de los conflictos, la mayoría de los encuestados consideraron que no estaba claro quién era el iniciador; el resto de los encuestados declaró proporciones similares de iniciación de las agresiones para ambos sexos (el 19,9% de los hombres y el 21,8% de las mujeres admitieron que solían ser los iniciadores de las agresiones; y el 15% de los hombres y el 24% de las mujeres indicaron que los iniciadores eran los cónyuges.) (Estados Unidos, 2009)
14. Prevalence and Correlates of Adolescent Dating Violence in Bangkok, Thailand (Penchan Pradubmook-Sherer ) (Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, 2009, vol. 36, no1, pp. 9-37) - Estudio aplicado a una muestra de 1.296 jóvenes de edades comprendidas entre los 14 y los 19 años. Los niveles de violencia física sufrida a manos de la pareja fueron similares para los chicos (41,9%) y para las chicas (41,2%). Los niveles de violencia verbal y emocional sufrida fueron ligeramente más altos para los chicos (49,2%) que para las chicas (46,7%). (Tailandia, 2009)
15. Official Incidents of Domestic Violence: Types, Injury, and Associations With Nonofficial Couple Aggression (Capaldi, Deborah M.; Shortt, Joann Wu; Kim, Hyoun K.; Wilson, Jane; Crosby, Lynn; Tucci, Shivan (Violence and Victims, 2009, Vol. 24, Nº 4, pp. 502-519) - Estudio longitudinal basado en una muestra inicial de 206 hombres procedentes de entornos con alta incidencia delictiva y sus parejas, con cuatro seguimientos en un intervalo de doce años (1991-2002). Sobre la base de esa muestra y ese marco temporal, se detectan 47 incidentes de violencia de pareja con intervención de la policía. En el 85% de los casos, el arrestado fue el varón, en el 6% la mujer, y en el 9% ambos. Aunque según los registros policiales, los hombres ejercían oficialmente más violencia que las mujeres, los datos extraoficiales obtenidos mediante el seguimiento particular de la encuesta demostraron que la violencia perpetrada por los hombres no era más frecuente ni más grave que la perpetrada por sus parejas femeninas. En cuanto a la totalidad de la muestra (es decir, con inclusión de los individuos no afectados por arrestos policiales), las mujeres mostraron mayores niveles de agresión hacia sus parejas que los hombres, aunque los niveles de gravedad de las agresiones fueron similares. Por consiguiente, concluyen los autores, "la idea de que las parejas involucradas en incidentes oficiales de violencia de pareja se caracterizan predominantemente por la violencia unilateral del hombre a la mujer no se ajusta a los resultados del estudio". (Estados Unidos, 2009).
16. Gender Variations in Dating Violence and Positive Conflict Resolution Among Mexican Adolescents (Antônio, Tiago; Hokoda, Audrey) (Violence and Victims, Vol. 24, Nº 4, pp. 533-545) - Estudio aplicado a una muestra de 285 adolescentes, alumnos de enseñanza media, residentes en un contexto urbano de clase media del norte de México. Como promedio, el 5,23% de las chicas y el 3,23% de los chicos declararon que habían ejercido violencia física (arrojar objetos, dar patadas, golpear, dar puñetazos, dar bofetadas, empujar o ahogar) contra sus parejas, al menos una vez durante el último año. Además, el 3,5% de las chicas y el 2,6% de los chicos declaró haber repetido el maltrato físico de tres a cinco veces, y el 1% de los chicos y de las chicas declaró haberlo repetido más de seis veces durante el último año. (México, 2009)
17. At-Risk and Maltreated Children Exposed to Intimate Partner Aggression/Violence: What the Conflict Looks Like and Its Relationship to Child Outcomes (D.J. English, J.C. Graham, R.R. Newton, T.L. Lewis, R. Thompson, J.B. Kotch y C. Weisbart) (Child Maltreatment, 2009, Vol. 14, Nº 2, págs. 157-171) - Datos procedentes del programa Longitudinal Studies of Child Abuse and Neglect (LONGSCAN), en cuyo marco se aplican entrevistas cada dos años a una muestra de hogares con riesgo de maltrato infantil distribuidos en cinco regiones de los Estados Unidos. El presente estudio se basa en las declaraciones de las mujeres sobre la violencia perpetrada en 554 hogares. Entre otros aspectos, se miden los niveles de perpetración y de unilateralidad y reciprocidad de la violencia en la pareja. "Las mujeres declararon una prevalencia de perpetración de violencia grave dos veces superior a la de sus parejas masculinas (15,3% vs. 7,7%) y una probabilidad de entablar agresiones graves cuatro veces superior a sus parejas masculinas (12,8% vs. 3,3%)". Se perpetró violencia unilateral masculina en 24 parejas y violencia unilateral femenina en 77 parejas. (Estados Unidos, 2009)
18. Gender Differences in Violence Exposure among University Students Attending Campus Health Clinics in the United States and Canada (Elizabeth M. Saewyc, David Brown, MaryBeth Plane, Marlon P. Mundt, Larissa Zakletskaia, Jennifer Wiegel y Michael F. Fleming) (Journal of Adolescent Health, doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2009.03.024 (mayo 2009). Encuesta aplicada a 2.091 alumnos universitarios con ocasión de exploraciones médicas rutinarias, en la que se les preguntó por la violencia sufrida durante los últimos seis meses. En lo que respecta a la violencia de pareja, la proporción de mujeres que se declaran víctimas de maltrato emocional (45,5%) o físico (23,7%) es similar a la proporción de hombres que se declaran víctimas de maltrato emocional (50%) o físico (20,9%). Los autores concluyen: "la mayor parte de las directrices que recomiendan investigar la violencia de pareja se centran exclusivamente en las mujeres; sin embargo, los resultados de nuestro estudio indican que los hombres están igualmente expuestos a sufrir violencia a manos de sus parejas" (pág. 7) (Estados Unidos y Canadá, 2009)
19. Problem Drinking, Unemployment, and Intimate Partner Violence among a Sample of Construction Industry Workers and their Partners (Carol B. Cunradi , Michael Todd, Michael Duke y Genevieve Ames) (Journal of Family Violence, Vol. 24, Nº 2) - Encuesta aplicada a 848 trabajadores de las construcción y sus parejas. Aproximadamente, el 20% de las parejas declararon violencia del hombre contra la mujer; y el 24% de las parejas declaró violencia de la mujer contra el hombre. En el artículo Agreement on Intimate Partner Violence Among a Sample of Blue-Collar Couples (Carol B. Cunradi, Melina Bersamin y Genevieve Ames) (Journal of Interpersonal Violence, vol. 24, nº 4, 551-568), publicado también en 2009, se analizan los resultados del mismo estudio desde el punto de vista de la coincidencia o discrepancia de los datos aportados por las parejas entrevistadas. Ambos miembros de la pareja declaran violencia del hombre contra la mujer en el 6,7% de los casos, y de la mujer contra el hombre en el 7,2% de los casos.(Estados Unidos, 2009)
20. Dating violence among school students in Tanzania and South Africa: Prevalence and socio-demographic variations (Annegreet G. Wubs, Leif E. Aarø, Alan J. Flisher, Sheri Bastien, Hans E. Onya, Sylvia Kaaya y Catherine Mathews) (Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, 2009; 37(Suppl 2): 75–86) - Los datos de este estudio se reunieron a lo largo de un período de 14 meses en centros de enseñanza media de Ciudad del Cabo y Mankweng (Sudáfrica) y Dar es Salaam (Tanzanía) mediante la aplicación de cuestionarios semestrales a una muestra final de 6.979 individuos. Los chicos presentaron niveles significativamente mayores de perpetración y victimización respecto de casi todo tipo de comportamientos, por lo que, según los autores, "los resultados son ambiguos y difíciles de interpretar". Si se cruzan los porcentajes declarados por ambos sexos para los distintos comportamientos (cuadro 1) y se hace el promedio, el 8,7% de los chicos y el 10,3% de las chicas fueron víctimas de agresiones. En cuanto a la pregunta general "¿Te ha pegado alguna vez tu pareja?", respondieron afirmativamente el 15,5 de los chicos y el 14,5 de las chicas. (Sudáfrica y Tanzanía, 2009)
21. Violence in Juvenile Dating Relationships Self-Reported Prevalence and Attitudes in a Portuguese Sample (Carla Machado, Sónia Caridade y Carla Martins) (Journal of Family Violence, DOI 10.1007/s10896-009-9268-x, julio de 2009) - Estudio de la violencia de pareja realizado sobre una muestra nacional de 4.667 participantes de edades comprendidas entre los 13 y los 29 años. Los datos se reunieron en ocho universidades, 12 institutos de enseñanza media y 16 escuelas profesionales. En lo que respecta a la violencia física total, los porcentajes cruzados de perpetración y victimización arrojan tasas de perpetración de violencia más altas en las mujeres (55,2%) que en los hombres (44,8%), si bien los porcentajes de perpetración de violencia física grave son más altos en los hombres (53,2%) que en las mujeres (46,8%). Las autoras concluyen: "Más mujeres que hombres declaran maltrato (general, emocional y físico) sobre sus parejas, y el género (femenino) se presenta como un predictor significativo de perpetración de violencia". (Portugal, 2009)
22. Persistence and Desistance of the Perpetration of Physical Aggression Across Relationships - Findings From a National Study of Adolescents (Daniel J. Whitaker, Brenda Le y Phyllis Holditch Niolon) (Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2009, doi:10.1177/0886260509334402) - Estudio basado en el National Longitudinal Study on Adolescent Health, con datos procedentes de una muestra de 6.446 jóvenes de edades comprendidas entre los 18 y los 26 años que informaron sobre sus dos últimas relaciones sentimentales. Las mujeres fueron perpetradoras de más violencia que los hombres, tanto en la primera relación (24,5% vs. 11,1%) como en la segunda (21,3% vs. 9,8%). (Estados Unidos, 2009)
23. Partner Violence and Sexual Jealousy in China: A Population-Based Survey (Tianfu Wang, William L. Parish, Edward O. Laumann y Ye Luo) (Violence against Women 2009; vol. 15; nº 7; págs. 774-798) - Encuesta nacional aplicada a una muestra de 3.806 individuos, representativa de la población china de 20 a 64 años. En conjunto de la muestra total, el 5% de las mujeres y el 4% de los hombres sufrieron agresiones físicas no recíprocas a manos de sus parejas, y otro 2% participó en agresiones recíprocas. A la edad de 30 años, el 7,7% de las mujeres y el 6,8% de los hombres sufrieron agresiones físicas no recíprocas, y el 4,4% experimentó agresiones recíprocas. (China, 2009)
24. Perpetration of Intimate Partner Aggression by Men and Women in the Philippines: Prevalence and Associated Factors (Donna L. Ansara y Michelle J. Hindin) (Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2009, vol. 24, nº 9, págs. 1579-1590) - Estudio basado en los datos de la encuesta longitudinal 2002 Cebu Longitudinal Health and Nutrition Survey. La muestra utilizada para el presente estudio está compuesta por 1.861 mujeres casadas o emparejadas, en su mayoría de edades próximas a los 45 años. El 26% de las mujeres declararon que, durante el último año, ellas o sus parejas habían perpetrado, como mínimo, un acto de agresión física, siendo las mujeres perpetradoras de mayores niveles de violencia unilateral (9,9%) que los hombres (5,9%). En cambio, dentro del grupo que declaró algún tipo de violencia, el 3,4% de las mujeres causó a su pareja lesiones que necesitaron atención médica, mientras que 7,3% de las mujeres sufrió lesiones que requirieron atención médica. (Filipinas, 2009)
25. Gender Symmetry, Sexism, and Intimate Partner Violence (Christopher T. Allen, Suzanne C. Swan y Chitra Raghavan) (Journal of Interpersonal Violence 2009; vol. 24; nº 11; pág. 1816-1834) - Estudio basado en una muestra de 92 hombres y 140 mujeres, todos ellos alumnos universitarios de 18 y 19 años de edad. El 55% de las mujeres y el 41% de los hombres declararon haber perpetrado violencia contra sus parejas; y el 47% de las mujeres y el 37% de los hombres declararon haber sido víctimas de violencia a manos de sus parejas. (Estados Unidos, 2009)
26. Physical and sexual intimate partner violence and reported serious psychological distress in the 2007 BRFSS (Valerie J. Edwards, Michele C. Black, Satvinder Dhingra, Lela McKnight-Eily y Geraldine S. Perry) (International Journal of Public Health, 54 (2009), S37–S42, DOI 10.1007/s00038-009-0005-2) - En este estudio se muestran los resultados de la encuesta oficial del Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) 2007 correspondientes a tres estados ((Hawaii, Nebraska, y Virginia) de los Estados Unidos. La muestra conjunta, representativa de la población adulta, está integrada por de 5.985 hombres y 9.335 mujeres. En la evaluación de la violencia física se incluyen las amenazas y conatos de agresión, y el período abarcado es toda la vida de los encuestados. Globalmente, el porcentaje de víctimas femeninas (19,9%) es casi el doble que el de víctimas masculinas (10,9%). En cambio, si se considera únicamente la violencia física, el porcentaje de víctimas femeninas (9,4%) es sólo ligeramente superior al de víctimas masculinas (7,8%). (Estados Unidos, 2009)
27. Intimate Partner Violence and Contribution of Drinking and Sociodemographics: The Brazilian National Alcohol Survey (Marcos Zaleski, Ilana Pinsky, Ronaldo Laranjeira, Suhasini Ramisetty-Mikler y Raul Caetano) (Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2009, anticipo editorial en línea, doi:10.1177/0886260509334396) – Se entrevistó a una muestra de 1.445 hombres y mujeres casados o en cohabitación para estimar la prevalencia de la violencia de pareja. Los niveles de perpetración de violencia de hombres contra mujeres fueron del 10,7%, y los niveles de perpetración de violencia de mujeres contra hombres fueron del 14,6%. (Brasil, 2009)
28. Like Parent, Like Child: Intergenerational Transmission of Partner Violence in Cebu, the Philippines (Jessica A. Fehringer, Michelle J. Hindin) (Journal of Adolescent Health, 2009 (Vol. 44, Nº 4, 363-371) – Según los datos procedentes del estudio "Cebu Longitudinal Health and Nutrition Survey in Cebu, the Philippines", obtenidos en 1994, 2002 y 2005 mediante el seguimiento longitudinal de una muestra de 472 jóvenes casados o en cohabitación, la prevalencia de la perpetración de violencia de pareja fue del 55,8% para las mujeres y del 25,1% para los hombres, mientras que la prevalencia de la victimización fue del 27,7% para las mujeres y del 30,5% para los hombres. (Filipinas, 2009)
29. Alcohol Use and Perceived Social and Emotional Consequences Among Perpetrators of General and Sexual Aggression (Cynthia A. Stappenbeck y Kim Fromme) (Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2009, doi:10.1177/0886260509334399) - Estudio realizado sobre una muestra de 2.941 universitarios (59% de ellos, mujeres), para determinar la relación entre consumo de alcohol y violencia de pareja perpetrada durante los 3 meses anteriores. El 61% de los perpetradores de agresiones verbales y físicas y el 52% de de los perpetradores de agresiones sexuales fueron mujeres. La violencia de los hombres estuvo más asociada al consumo de alcohol que la de las mujeres. (Estados Unidos, 2009)
30. British Crime Survey 2007/2008. En el informe general de esta prestigiosa encuesta, publicado en julio de 2008, se indica que los datos más fiables sobre violencia doméstica son los obtenidos mediante cuestionario autocompletado en ordenador, en lugar de las entrevistas personales utilizadas para el resto de la encuesta, y se anuncia el análisis de esos datos en un futuro informe (pág. 67). Utilizamos, por lo tanto, los datos de ese segundo informe, publicado a comienzos de 2009. En el cuadro 3.02 se resumen los datos relativos a la violencia de pareja, según los cuales, los porcentajes de violencia física total sufrida durante los doce meses anteriores fueron del 2,2% para las mujeres y del 2% para los hombres, al tiempo que los porcentajes de violencia física grave sufrida en ese período fueron del 1,5% para las mujeres y del 1,4% para los hombres. (Reino Unido, 2009)
31. A Cluster Analytic Investigation of School Violence Victimization Among Diverse Students (Erika D. Felix, Michael J. Furlong y Greg Austin) (Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2009, anticipo editoria en línea, doi:10.1177/0886260509331507) - Muestra de 70.600 alumnos de enseñanza secundaria del estado de California. "Casi el 5% de los alumnos declaró haber sido víctima de violencia física a manos de su pareja [...] Chicos y chicas declararon niveles similares de violencia de pareja" (pág. 9). "Al igual que en estudios anteriores (Gray&Fosey), pero contrariamente a las expectativas sociales, el estudio demostró que chicos y chicas habían experimentado niveles similares de violencia de pareja" (pág. 16). (Estados Unidos, 2009)
32. Dating Violence Among High School Students in Southeastern North Carolina (Yeoun Soo Kim-Godwin, Carrie Clements, Ashley M. McCuiston y Jane A. Fox) (Journal of School Nursing, 2009, vol. 25 Nº 2, págs. 141-151) - Estudio basado en los datos de la Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS) de 2005 y 2007 relativos a sendas muestras de 375 y 372 alumnos de secundaria de 13 a 18 años. Entre otros aspectos, se estudió la violencia de pareja sufrida durante los doce meses anteriores. En 2005, el 15% de los chicos y el 8% de las chicas declararon haber sido agredidos físicamente por sus parejas. En cambio, en 2007, el 9,7% de los chicos y el 15,6% de las chicas declararon haber sido agredidos físicamente por sus parejas. Los niveles de violencia sexual (definida como "haber sido forzado físicamente a tener relaciones sexuales cuando no quería") fueron similares para ambos sexos (en torno al 10%) en las dos evaluaciones. (Estados Unidos, 2009)
33. Intimate Partner Violence Among Hispanic Men and Women: The Role of Drinking, Neighborhood Disorder, and Acculturation-Related Factors (Cunradi, Carol B.) (Violence and Victims, Volume 24, Number 1, 2009 , pp. 83-97(15)) – En una submuestra de 1.148 hombres y 1.399 mujeres hispanos participantes en la 2000 National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, los niveles de perpetración de violencia de pareja declarados por los hombres (6,1%) fueron algo inferiores a los declarados por las mujeres (6,5%), mientras que los niveles de victimización declarados por los hombres (8,8%) fueron superiores a los declarados por las mujeres (7,8%). (Estados Unidos, 2009)
34. Is Psychological Aggression as Detrimental as Physical Aggression? The Independent Effects of Psychological Aggression on Depression and Anxiety Symptoms (Lawrence, Erika; Yoon, Jeungeun; Langer, Amie; Ro, Eunyoe) (Violence and Victims, Volume 24, Number 1, 2009 , pp. 20-35(16)) – Muestra de 103 parejas de recién casados a los que se evaluó cuatro veces durante los tres primeros años de matrimonio. Como promedio, maridos y esposas declararon niveles moderados de violencia psíquica, y no se constataron diferencias en función del sexo respecto de las tasas de prevalencia o los niveles de victimización. En cuanto a la violencia física, el 44% de los maridos y el 52% de las esposas emprendieron agresiones contra sus parejas. (Estados Unidos, 2009)
35. No One Type of Intimate Partner Abuse: Exploring Physical and Non-Physical Abuse Among Intimate Partners (Maureen Outlaw) - (Journal of Family Violence, 2009, anticipo editorial en línea, DOI 10.1007/s10896-009-9228-5) – Utilizando los datos de la encuesta sistematizada por Tjaden y Thoennes (1998), este estudio examina la prevalencia de diferentes tipos de maltrato no físico. Según esos datos, el maltrato no físico de pareja es más frecuente que el físico y no muestra diferencias significativas en función del sexo, como suele creerse. Hay datos concluyentes que demuestran que algunos tipos de maltrato no físico constituyen claros factores de riesgo de maltrato físico y violencia más frecuente contra quienes son ya víctimas de maltrato, pero tampoco estos datos son diferentes en función del sexo. (Estados Unidos, 2009)
36. Mutual Partner Violence Mental Health Symptoms Among Female and Male Victims in Four Racial/Ethnic Groups (Moisés Próspero y Miseong Kim) (Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2009, anticipo editorial en línea, doi:10.1177/0886260508327705) – Estudio aplicado a una muestra de 676 universitarios. En contradicción con los detractores de las CTS como instrumento que no permitiría discernir los porcentajes de violencia defensiva femenina, este estudio permitió constatar que hombres y mujeres utilizaban conductas de coacción y comportamientos de violencia física y sexual hacia sus parejas, por lo que es posible que tanto hombres como mujeres utilicen la violencia para controlar a sus parejas (pág. 14). Según sus conclusiones, los comportamientos de coacción o violencia en las relaciones de pareja no son únicamente unidireccionales ni en ellos los hombres ejercen de perpetradores y las mujeres de víctimas, sino que "la mayor parte de las relaciones violentas se explican por una violencia mutua" (pág. 16). (Estados Unidos, 2009)
37. The Longitudinal Association of Adolescent Dating Violence With Psychiatric Disorders and Functioning (Adrienne Brown, Elizabeth Cosgrave, Eóin Killackey, Rosemary Purcell, Joe Buckby y Alison R. Yung) (Journal of Interpersonal Violence, anticipo editorial en línea, doi:10.1177/0886260508327700) – Se evaluó la violencia de pareja en una muestra final de 98 jóvenes de 15 a 24 años (54% mujeres) a los que se realizó un seguimiento longitudinal durante seis meses. A la pregunta "Durante los doce últimos meses, tu pareja te golpeó, abofeteó o agredió físicamente adrede", respondieron afirmativamente el 11,3% de las mujeres y el 15,6% de los hombres. (Australia, 2009)
38. Psychosocial Correlates of Physical Dating Violence Victimization Among Latino Early Adolescents (Fang A. Yan, Donna E. Howard, Kenneth H. Beck, Teresa Shattuck y Melissa Hallmark-Kerr) (Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2009, anticipo editorial en línea, doi:10.1177/0886260509336958) - Encuesta anónima aplicada a una muestra de conveniencia integrada por 322 adolescentes latinos de 11 a 13 años. En conjunto, el 13,5% de los encuestados se declararon víctimas de violencia física de pareja durante el año anterior. La prevalencia fue el 14,4% para las chicas y del 12,9% para los chicos. (Estados Unidos, 2009)
39. Sex-Symmetric Effects of Coercive Behaviors on Mental Health?: Not Exactly (Moisés Próspero) (Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2009, Vol. 24, Nº 1, págs. 128-146) - Estudio basado en una muestra de 573 universitarios (edad media: 21,4 años) a los que se preguntó por la violencia de pareja sufrida durante el año inmediatamente anterior. Se declararon víctimas de violencia física el 46,4% de las mujeres y el 41,9% de los hombres. Asimismo, los hombres y las mujeres se declararon víctimas de violencia verbal y sexual y de comportamientos de coacción (coacción económica, amenazas, intimidación, coacción emocional y aislamiento) en proporciones muy similares. (Estados Unidos, 2009)
40. Violence Between Therapy-Seeking Veterans and Their Partners: Prevalence and Characteristics of Nonviolent, Mutually Violent, and One-Sided Violent Couples (Andra L. Teten, Michelle D. Sherman y Xiaotong Han) (Journal of Interpersonal Violence 2009; vol. 24; nº 1; págs. 111-127) - Estudio basado en una muestra de 184 parejas sometidas a terapia relacional. En todas ellas, el varón era veterano del ejército al que se le había diagnosticado trastorno de estrés postraumático. En lo que respecta a la prevalencia de la violencia de pareja, las parejas se clasificaron en tres grupos: sin violencia (44%), con violencia recíproca (26%) y con violencia unidireccional (30%). En las parejas con violencia unidireccional, los niveles de perpetración fueron del 56% para los hombres y del 44% para las mujeres. (Estados Unidos, 2009)
41. Parenting and Violence Toward Self, Partners, and Others Among Inner-City Young Adults (Lydia O’Donnell, Ann Stueve y Athi Myint-U) (American Journal of Public Health, 2009, Vol. 99, Nº 12, págs. 2255-2260) - Estudio longitudinal basado en las declaraciones realizadas en 2005-2007 por una muestra de 990 jóvenes adultos constituida en 1995, cuando los entrevistados cursaban enseñanza secundaria, en el marco del Reach for Health Study de Nueva York. La edad media de los entrevistados fue de 23,5 años. El 19,2% de los hombres se declararon perpetradores de violencia física contra sus parejas, en comparación con el 17.1% de las mujeres. (Estados Unidos, 2009)
42. Comparisons of Intimate Partner Violence Among Partners in Same-Sex and Opposite-Sex Relationships in the United States (John R. Blosnich y Robert M. Bossarte) (American Journal of Public Health, 2009, vol. 99, Nº 12, págs. 2182-2184) - Los datos analizados proceden de la encuesta del Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (ediciones de 2005, 2006 y 2007) y corresponden a los 7.998 participantes que se declararon víctimas de violencia de pareja en esa encuesta. Dentro de ese grupo, que se desglosa por parejas heterosexuales y homosexuales, 88,8% de las mujeres se declararon víctimas de agresiones físicas perpetradas por sus parejas masculinas, y el 97,2% de los hombres se declararon víctimas de agresiones físicas perpetradas por sus parejas femeninas. (Estados Unidos, 2009)
43. Early exposure to violence, domestic violence, attachment representations, and marital adjustment (Natacha Godbout, Donald G. Dutton, Yvan Lussier y Stéphane Sabourin) (Personal Relationships, 16 (2009), 365–384) - Estudio basado en una muestra de 315 hombres y 329 mujeres en relaciones estables de pareja durante los últimos siete años, como promedio. La muestra se constituyó mediante marcado telefónico aleatorio en la provincia canadiense de Quebec. El 31% de las mujeres y el 23% de los hombres se declararon perpetradores de violencia física contra sus parejas durante el año anterior. Los porcentajes de perpetración de violencia psicológica fueron del 86% para las mujeres y del 80% para los hombres. (Canadá, 2009)
44. Violent attitudes and mental health symptoms among mutually violent Ghanaian couples (Moisés Próspero, Peter Dwumah y Kwadwo Ofori-Dua) (Journal of Aggression, Conflict and Peace Research, 2009, vol. 1, nº 2, págs. 16-23) - Estudio basado en una muestra de 358 universitarios de Ghana (edad media, 27 años; 51% de mujeres) que durante el último año habían mantenido relaciones de pareja. Los hombres declaran mayores niveles de perpetración de violencia, pero no se aprecian diferencias significativas entre hombres y mujeres en las declaraciones sobre la violencia sufrida a manos de sus parejas (victimización) o sobre la utilización de comportamientos de control. (Ghana, 2009)
45. Drug Use and Intimate Partner Violence Among College Students: An In-Depth Exploration (Erin L. Nabors) (Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2009, doi:10.1177/0886260509340543) - Estudio sobre la relación entre el consumo de drogas y las violencia de pareja, basado en los datos del Relationship Characteristics Study aplicado a una muestra de 1.938 universitarios de Florida en 2001. Tanto los niveles de consumo de drogas como de perpetración de violencia de pareja fueron similares para ambos sexos; más concretamente, el 31,6% de las alumnas y el el 27,8% de los alumnos habían agredido físicament a sus parejas durante los doce meses anteriores a la aplicación de la encuesta. (Estados Unidos, 2009)
46. Intimate Partner Violence Perpetration Among College Students: The Role of Gender Role and Gendered Violence Attitudes (Erin L. Nabors y Jana L. Jasinski) (Feminist Criminology, 2009; vol. 4; nº 1; págs. 57-82) - Los datos utilizados en este proyecto proceden del Longitudinal Study of Violence Against Women: Victimization and Perpetration Among College Students in a State-Supported University in the United States, 1990-1995, aplicado a una muestra de 1.580 mujeres y 851 hombres, con cinco mediciones realizadas a lo largo de cuatro años. Se formularon dos preguntas sobre violencia leve (arrojar objetos, agarrar y empujar) y otras dos sobre violencia más grave (golpear y golpear con objetos). El 30% de las mujeres y el 18% de los hombres se declararon perpetradores de violencia contra sus parejas. Las autoras consideran que este mayor predominio de violencia femenina se debe a que sólo se midieron actos de violencia de poca gravedad. (Estados Unidos, 2009)
47. Effects of Physical and Verbal Aggression, Depression, and Anxiety on Drinking Behavior of Married Partners: A Prospective and Retrospective Longitudinal Examination (Margaret K. Keiley, Peggy S. Keller, y Mona El-Sheikh) (Aggressive Behavior, Vol. 35, págs. 296–312 (2009)) - Los datos de este trabajo proceden de un estudio longitudinal aplicado a 195 parejas, casadas desde hacía 16 años, como promedio. Entre las dos fases del estudio transcurrió un intervalo de dos años y medio, y en ambas fases se aplicó el mismo cuestionario sobre consumo de alcohol, conflictos familiares y bienestar de los hijos. En lo que respecta a los conflictos familiares, se preguntó a ambos miembros de la pareja sobre la violencia de pareja perpetrada por ellos y por sus cónyuges durante el año inmediatamente anterior a la aplicación de la encuesta. Según los resultados globales cruzados, el 26% de las mujeres y el 14% de los hombres habían perpetrado violencia física contra sus parejas durante ese año. (Estados Unidos, 2009)
48. Exposure to Domestic Violence Between Parents: A Perspective From Tehran, Iran (Meroe Vameghi, Ali Feizzadeh, Arash Mirabzadeh y Golnaz Feizzadeh) (Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2009, doi:10.1177/0886260509340532) - Estudio aplicado a 1.495 alumnos de enseñanza secundaria (curso escolar de 2005-2006, 47'2% de chicas, edad media: 16,1 años) para determinar la violencia interparental presenciada a lo largo de su vida. Casi el doble de chicas que de chicos declararon haber presenciado violencia entre sus padres. En el 54,3% de los casos, el padre fue el único perpetrador; en el 37,5% de los casos, la violencia entre los padres fue recíproca; y en el 3,4% de los casos, la madre fue la única perpetradora. (Irán, 2009)
49. Commission Versus Receipt of Violence During Pregnancy: Associations With Substance Abuse Variables (Golfo K. Tzilos, Emily R. Grekin, Jessica R. Beatty, Sara K. Chase y Steven J. Ondersma) (Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2009, doi:10.1177/0886260509354507) - Estudio basado en una muestra inicial de 78 mujeres embarazadas, pacientes de una unidad de cuidados prenatales. De ellas, 5 declararon niveles similares de perpetración y recepción de violencia y fueron descartadas del estudio para análisis ulteriores. De las 73 restantes, el 47% declaró mayores niveles de perpetración que de recepción de violencia, y el 14% declaró mayores niveles de recepción que de perpetración de violencia. En general los actos de violencia física fueron leves (empujar o agarrar) y sólo el 8% de los casos fueron graves (pegar o usar armas). (Estados Unidos, 2009)
50. Gender Differences in Partner Violence in Context: Deconstructing Johnson’s (2001) Control-Based Typology of Violent Couples (Jody M. Ross y Julia C. Babcock) (Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 2009, vol. 18, págs. 604–622) - Estudio basado en una muestra de 281 parejas casadas o en situación equiparable al matrimonio que, en sesiones de unas tres horas por pareja, rellenaron por separado una serie de cuestionarios y participaron después en un debate en común. En la preselección de la muestra, relacionada con otro estudio de mayor amplitud, se aplicó el criterio de que la mujer hubiera declarado previamente insatisfacción o victimización en la pareja, lo que, según los autores, "pudo limitar el número de parejas en las que la mujer fuese perpetradora en exclusiva o de violencia grave". En conjunto, las mujeres perpetraron más actos violentos y un número similar de actos de control que sus parejas masculinas, y mostraron más hostilidad que los hombres durante el debate en común. Aunque la selección de la muestra se basó en la insatisfacción o victimización de la mujer, el 12% de las mujeres se declararon perpetradoras únicas en la pareja, mientras que el 16,5% declararon que el hombre era el único agresor. En cambio, el 11% de los hombres declararon que la mujer era la única agresora en la pareja, mientras que el 9% declararon que el hombre era el único agresor. Por último, el 2,5% de las mujeres sufrieron lesiones, en comparación con el 2,2% de los hombres (respuestas cruzadas, cuadro 2). (Estados Unidos, 2009)
51. The Nature and Correlates of Dating Violence among Jewish and Arab Youths in Israel (Moshe Sherer) (Journal of Family Violence (2009) 24:11–26) - Estudio basado en una muestra de 1.357 jóvenes (640 judíos y 717 árabes), que arrojó los siguientes resultados sobre violencia de pareja: el 42,3% de los hombres y el 26,4% de las mujeres recibieron amenazas; el 35,3% de los hombres y el 13,3% de las mujeres sufrieron abusos de relación (malediciencia, rumores negativos, etc.); el 41,4% de los hombres y el 32,8% de las mujeres sufrieron violencia física; el 46,4% de los hombres y el 21,7% de las mujeres sufrieron abusos sexuales; y el 88,9% de los hombres y el 86,7% de las mujeres sufrieron abusos verbales. (Israel, 2009)
52. Bidirectional Partner Violence Among Homeless Young Adults: Risk Factors and Outcomes (Kimberly A. Tyler, Lisa A. Melander y HarmoniJoie Noel) (Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2009, vol. 24, nº 6, págs. 1014-1035) - Datos procedentes del Homeless Young Adult Project (HYAP), aplicado en tres ciudades (Des Moines (IA), Omaha y Lincoln (NE)) de los Estados Unidos, correspondientes a 166 jóvenes adultos (19-26 años, 40% de mujeres) con antecedentes de vagabundeo y vida sin hogar. Si se cruzan las declaraciones de ambos sexos, las tasas de perpetración de violencia de pareja son más altas en las mujeres (72%) que en los hombres (64%), con niveles similares de agresiones graves en mujeres (17%) y hombres (18,5%). (Estados Unidos, 2009)
53. Sex Differences in Intimate Partner Violence and the Use of Coercive Control as a Motivational Factor for Intimate Partner Violence (Marieh Tanha, Connie J. A. Beck, Aurelio José Figueredo y Chitra Raghavan) (Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2009, DOI: 10.1177/0886260509354501) – Estudio basado en las declaraciones de 762 parejas participantes en un programa de mediación en el marco de sus procesos judiciales de divorcio. Aunque los autores insisten en que los hombres perpetraron más violencia, los datos no difieren sustancialemente en función del sexo. Durante los 12 meses anteriores a la aplicación del cuestionario, las mujeres sufrieron el 20,8% del maltrato píquico y el 2,9% del maltrato físico, mientras que en el caso de los hombres, los porcentajes relativos a ambos tipos de maltrato fueron del 17,2% y del 2,8%, respectivamente. (Estados Unidos, 2009)
54. Patterns of Intimate Partner Violence Victimization from Adolescence to Young Adulthood in a Nationally Representative Sample (Carolyn Tucker Halpern, Aubrey L. Spriggs, Sandra L. Martin y Lawrence L. Kupper) (Journal of Adolescent Health 45 (2009) 508–516) – Estudio basado en los datos del National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, instrumento longitudinal aplicado a 4.134 individuos de edades comprendidas entre los 13 y los 23 años en tres fases que abarcaron un intervalo de seis años (1995-2001). En cada una de esas fases, los porcentajes de violencia global sufrida a manos de sus parejas fueron ligeramente superiores para las mujeres (9,1%, 27,4% y 7,8%) que para los hombres (7,3%, 21,8% y 6,6%). Esos porcentajes abarcan tanto la violencia física como determinados tipos de violencia psíquica, incluida la insistencia en mantener relaciones sexuales. (Estados Unidos, 2009)
55. Exposure to Family Violence in Childhood and Intimate Partner Perpetration or Victimization in Adulthood: Exploring Intergenerational Transmission in Urban Thailand (Kent R. Kerley, Xiaohe Xu, Bangon Sirisunyaluck y Joseph M. Alley) (Journal of Family Violence, 2009, DOI 10.1007/s10896-009-9295-7) – Estudio basado en una muestra de 816 mujeres (de una edad media de 39 años) para determinar la influencia de los antecedentes familiares en los actuales niveles de violencia perpetrada y sufrida en la pareja. El período abarcado fueron los doce meses inmediatamente anteriores a la aplicación de la encuesta. Las mujeres entrevistadas se declararon perpetradoras en porcentajes del 66,33% para la violencia psicológica y del 39,60% para la violencia física; y víctimas en porcentajes del 62,67% para la violencia psicológica y del 34,80% para la violencia física. (Tailandia, 2009)
56. Prevalence of Rural Intimate Partner Violence in 16 US States, 2005 (Matthew J. Breiding, Jessica S. Ziembroski y Michele C. Black) (The Journal of Rural Health, Vol. 25, Nº 3, págs. 240 – 246) – Estudio basado en una muestra de 25.000 residentes rurales de 16 estados, participantes en la encuesta del Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) de 2005. El 26,7% de las mujeres y el 15,5% de los hombres se declararon víctimas de alguna forma de violencia de pareja experimentada a lo largo de su vida. (Estados Unidos, 2009)
57. Gender Variation in Partner Abuse: Findings From a Conservative Christian Denomination (René D. Drumm, Marciana Popescu and Matt L. Riggs) (Affilia 2009; 24; 56) – Estudio basado en una muestra de 1.431 fieles de una confesión cristiana conservadora, correspondientes a 48 centros parroquiales del noroeste de los Estados Unidos. El estudio fue supervisado por especialistas de la Universidad de Andrews. Se encuestó a personas de todas las edades, con participación mayoritariamente femenina (61%) y se evaluaron los porcentajes de violencia de pareja sufrida lo largo de toda la vida. Las mujeres declararon porcentajes globales de victimización por violencia física del 33,8%; y los hombres, del 20,1%. (Estados Unidos, 2009)
58. Partner exploitation and violence in teenage intimate relationships (Christine Barter, Melanie McCarry, David Berridge y Kathy Evans) (Universidad de Bristol y NSPCC) – Estudio basado en una muestra de 1.353 jóvenes (680 chicas y 669 chicos), que declararon niveles similares de perpetración y victimización por violencia de pareja. El 25% de las chicas y el 18% de los chicos declararon haber sufrido algún tipo de violencia física a manos de su pareja; el 11% de las chicas y el 4% de los chicos declararon que esa violencia fue grave. En cambio, el 25% de las chicas y el 8% de los chicos se declararon perpetradores de violencia física contra sus parejas; el 5% de las chicas y el 2% de los chicos declararon que esa violencia fue grave. (Reino Unido, 2009)
References examining assaults by women on their spouses or male partners
http://www.csulb.edu/~mfiebert/assault.htm
Sezione in Wikipedia: Violenza domestica – Testo:
(…) In una raccolta pubblicata nel 2009, Javier Alverez Deca presenta i risultati di 230 studi empirici internazionali sulla violenza di coppia, realizzati nel corso degli ultimi 30 anni in 24 paesi. Tutti questi studi compiono il requisito essenziale di valutare il comportamento di entrambi i partner nella coppia eterosessuale. Secondo le conclusioni di tale pubblicazione, la violenza fisica è esercitata in proporzioni simili da uomini e donne, e spesso iniziata per primo dalle donne. Lo stesso autore ha prodotto una raccolta di 58 studi sulla violenza nella coppia, tutti pubblicati nel 2009, i cui risultati coincidono con la raccolta precedente. Pertanto, appare evidente la sfasatura creatasi tra le conclusioni della comunità scientifica, che riscontra la bidirezionalità della violenza nella coppia, e le politiche attuali, basate sul paradigma di genere.
JAVIER ALVAREZ DECA, studioso della violenza di genere ha pubblicato:
LA VIOLENCIA EN LA PAREJA: BIDIRECCIONAL Y SIMETRICA: ANALISIS COMPARATIVO DE 230 ESTUDIOS CIENTIFICOS INTERNACIONALES
(La violenza nella coppia: bidirezionale e simmetrica: analisi comparativo di 230 studi scientifici internazionali)
http://www.absurdistan.eu/luz_bajo_celemin_2009.pdf
Il titolo di questo lavoro – tra l’altro privo di qualsiasi connotazione religiosa - fa eco alle parole di Gesù: "Si prende forse la candela per metterla sotto il vaso o sotto il letto? Non la si prende invece per metterla sul candeliere? Poiché non vi è nulla che sia nascosto se non per essere manifestato; e nulla è stato tenuto segreto, se non per essere messo in luce. Se uno ha orecchi per udire oda» (Marco 4:21-23).
Non si poteva trovare un titolo migliore di questo per riassumere lo stato attuale degli studi scientifici sulla violenza di coppia.
La prima grande indagine sulla violenza domestica, condotta da Straus, Gelles e Steinmetz nel 1975 negli Stati Uniti, diede già allora dei risultati inattesi e del tutto incoerenti con la tesi dell’ideologia trionfante, e dimostrò che tanto gli uomini quanto le donne esercitavano violenza sul partner in proporzioni simili. Da allora, centinaia di studi scientifici, basati su campioni compositi di uomini e donne, rappresentativi della popolazione, hanno confermato questa conclusione in maniera inconfutabile.
Inoltre, sono sempre più studi ad indagare sulla violenza offensiva o difensiva nella relazione di coppia. La conclusione quasi unanime di questi studi è che la donna è l’iniziatrice principale dell’aggressione fisica nella coppia, smentendo il mito radicato del carattere puramente difensivo della violenza femminile. [1]
Tuttavia, chi conosce questi studi? Come vengono pubblicizzati dai media e dalla politica? Senza dubbio hanno richiesto sforzo, conoscenze e risorse; e sono stati fatti, con risultati coincidenti, in molti paesi. Insieme rappresentano una vera e propria mappa del mondo della violenza domestica. Ma il loro riconoscimento sociale e politico è molto lontano dai loro meriti e dalle loro utilità potenziali. La loro diffusione si limita principalmente agli ambienti specializzati e raramente attraversa la barriera, apparentemente insormontabile, della correttezza politica ed del tornaconto elettorale. Questi studi obiettivi ed imparziali sono la luce che dovrebbe essere sul candelabro come riferimento per la formulazione di politiche e l'adozione di leggi sulla violenza domestica. Tuttavia, nel corso dei decenni, sono stati relegati nell’ultimo piano, nel dimenticatoio. Essi sono la lampada che, assurdamente o per interesse, è messa sotto il vaso.
Questo elaborato raccoglie i risultati di 58 studi sulla violenza di coppia pubblicati nel 2009. Anche se confinata in un lasso di tempo molto limitato, la raccolta non ha la pretesa di essere esaustiva. Un'ulteriore ricerca nelle principali banche-dati utilizzate, [2] o da altre fonti, permetterebbe, quasi certamente, di trovare molti altri studi pubblicati nello stesso anno e con risultati analoghi. Gli studi sono stati selezionati sulla base di un unico criterio: che tengano conto del comportamento di entrambi i partner, maschio e femmina.
In questa raccolta, i tassi simili di violenza di entrambi i partner sono il risultato predominante (31 studi); il secondo risultato più frequente è il più elevato tasso di violenza femminile (22 studi); e solo cinque di questi studi divergono da questi dati e mostrano livelli di violenza maschile più elevati: il n° 40 (realizzato su un campione di coppie in terapia per problemi psicologici del maschio), il n° 48 (applicato ad un campione iraniano) e i nn. 26, 56, e 57 (che valutano la violenza esercitata o subita nel corso della vita degli intervistati). Questi ultimi tre studi riproducono il modello di quasi tutti gli studi che coprono un lungo periodo di tempo o la vita intera dei partecipanti. In questi casi, i livelli di vittimizzazione riportati dalle donne sono spesso superiori a quelli riportati dagli uomini, in contraddizione con gli studi più ravvicinati e meglio collocati nel tempo, e relativi a periodi più brevi e facili da ricordare. Dato che entrambi i risultati non possono essere veri, è logico dedurre che i risultati di studi di periodi più distanti e lunghi nel tempo sono meno affidabili e più condizionati dall'ideologia e dal clima sociale prevalente.
Inoltre, in nove studi (i nn. 3, 5, 13, 17, 23, 24, 40, 48 e 50) si prendono in esame gli aspetti dell’unilateralità e dell'avvio dell’aggressione. Il risultato più frequente è il simile tasso di aggressioni non reciproche o unilaterali in uomini e donne (quattro studi); il secondo risultato più frequente è il tasso più elevato di violenza unilaterale femminile (tre studi); e, infine, la violenza unilaterale maschile prevale nei due studi sopraccitati con un campione di uomini con problemi psicologici (n° 40) e il campione iraniano (n° 48).
Le conclusioni generali ottenute dopo la consultazione dei 58 studi qui presentati non differiscono da quelle esposte nella ricerca "La violenza di coppia: bidirezionale e simmetrica”, dove sono stati raccolti i risultati di 230 studi pubblicati prima del 2009. A questa ricerca, quindi rimando il lettore.
[1] Nel libro "La violencia en la pareja: bidireccional y simétrica" (J. Alvarez-Deca, Ed. AEMA, 2009) sono raccolti i risultati di 230 studi sulla violenza di coppia. 51 studi affrontano la questione dell’avvio della violenza, e le loro conclusioni sono le seguenti: 39 studi riscontrano tassi più elevati di violenza fisica non reciproca o iniziata da aggressione fisica femminile; 5 studi, tre di loro basati su campioni di coppie sottoposti a terapia coniugale, riscontrano più elevati tassi di violenza fisica non reciproca o iniziata da aggressione fisica maschile; e i 7 studi mancanti riscontrano tassi simile in entrambi i sessi.
[2] Le principali banche-dati o editoriali consultate sono state British Library, APA Databases, Sage Journals, ScienceDirect, Blackwell Publishing, Citeulike, Wiley Interscience, Cat.Inist, PubMed e Scielo.
Traduz. per CDVD a cura di Santiago G.
ANEXO
Estudios sobre la violencia en la pareja (2009)
1. Agreement on Reporting of Physical, Psychological, and Sexual Violence Among White, Black, and Hispanic Couples in the United States (Raul Caetano, Craig Field, Suhasini Ramisetty-Mikler y Sherry Lipsky) (Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2009; vol. 24; nº 8; pág. 1318-1337) - Estudio basado en las entrevistas realizadas por separado a los miembros de 1.025 parejas adultas de 48 estados de los Estados Unidos. Los datos, analizados en varios estudios anteriores, se presentan aquí desglosados por grupos étnicos (negros, blancos e hispanos). Los resultados de perpetración de violencia son similares para hombres y mujeres en los tres grupos étnicos. El promedio de las tasas de perpetración es del 13% para hombres y mujeres en el caso de la violencia física leve; y del 3,8% para las mujeres y del 3% para los hombres, en el caso de la violencia física grave (cuadro 1). (Estados Unidos, 2009)
2. Family Violence in Canada: A Statistical Profile 2009 (Statistics Canada, Canadian Centre For Justice Statistics, octubre de 2009) - Informe anual del departamento de estadística del Canadá sobre la violencia familiar, basado en las denuncias presentadas en los puestos de policía en 2007 y precedido de un estudio sobre la situación de los albergues para maltratadas. Según el informe, "la abrumadora mayoría de las víctimas de violencia de pareja siguen siendo las mujeres, que, en 2007, interpusieron más de 8 de cada 10 denuncias ante la policía, en comparación con el 17% correspondiente a los hombres". Sin embargo, al pormenorizar los tipos de violencia denunciada, las víctimas de violencia grave (con resultado de lesiones y heridas) fueron hombres en el 23% de los casos y mujeres en el 13% de los casos, debido, según el estudio, a la más frecuente utilización de armas por las mujeres. En el caso de la violencia leve (empujones, bofetadas, puñetazos e insultos), las mujeres representaron el 63% de las víctimas y los hombres el 61%. (Canadá, 2009)
3. Examining Symmetry in Intimate Partner Violence Among Young Adults Using Socio-Demographic Characteristics (Lynette M. Renner y Stephen D. Whitney) (Journal of Family Violence, 2009, DOI 10.1007/s10896-009-9273-0) - Estudio basado en una submuestra de la National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (NLSAH) integrada por 4.895 individuos (2.196 varones y 2.699 mujeres), de edades comprendidas entre los 18 y los 27 años (promedio: 22 años), que habían declarado experiencias de violencia en la pareja en la NLSAH. Se evaluaron los niveles de perpetración/victimización y unilateralidad/reciprocidad de la violencia de pareja. En cuanto a la violencia física recíproca, el 58,4% de las mujeres y el 59,8% de los hombres sufrieron agresiones; y el 28,2% de las mujeres y el 28,5% de los hombres sufrieron lesiones. En cuanto a la violencia física no recíproca, el 42,2% de las mujeres y el 45,2% de los hombres sufrieron agresiones, con sendos porcentajes del 10% de lesiones para hombres y mujeres. Y en cuanto a la violencia sexual (definida mediante la pregunta "¿Con qué frecuencia has insistido u obligado a tu pareja a tener relaciones sexuales cuando él/ella no quería?"), el 32,3% de las mujeres y el 31,8% de los hombres fueron víctimas de agresiones recíprocas; y el 27% de las mujeres y el 25% de los hombres fueron víctimas de agresiones no recíprocas. (Estados Unidos, 2009)
4. Prevalência e fatores associados à violência entre parceiros íntimos: um estudo de base populacional em Lages, Santa Catarina, Brasil, 2007 (Adriana Jaqueline Anacleto, Kathie Njaine, Giana Zarbato Longo, Antonio Fernando Boing y Karen Glazer Peres (Cadernos de Saúde Pública, Rio de Janeiro, 25(4):800-808, abril 2009) - Se entrevistó a 1.042 mujeres de edades comprendidas entre los 20 y los 59 años, que declararon sobre la violencia perpetrada por ellas y sus parejas masculinas durante los últimos 12 meses. Según sus declaraciones, los porcentajes perpetración de violencia verbal fueron del 76,8% para las mujeres y del 71,5% para los hombres; los porcentajes de perpetración de violencia física leve fueron del 13'7% para las mujeres y del 9,8% para los hombres; y los porcentajes de perpetración de violencia física grave fueron del 6,8% para las mujeres y del 5,6% para los hombres. (Brasil, 2009)
5. Violence between parents reported by male and female university students: prevalence,severity, chronicity and mutuality (Murray A Straus) (Journal of Aggression, Conflict and Peace Research, Vol. 1, Nº 1, abril 2009) - Estudio realizado sobre una muestra de 1.313 alumnos de la Universidad de New Hampshire (EE.UU.), de los que el 72% eran mujeres (en correspondencia con la composición por sexos de los cursos de Psicología) y que declararon sobre la violencia interparental presenciada en el hogar. En conjunto, las madres resultaron perpetradoras del 14,1% de la violencia global y del 6,9% de la violencia grave; y los padres resultaron perpetradores del 13% de la violencia global y del 7,5% de la violencia grave. En cuanto a la reciprocidad de la violencia, aunque la pauta más común fue la bidireccionalidad, la violencia unidireccional fue perpetrada en mayor medida por la madre. (Estados Unidos, 2009)
6. Nonviolent Aspects of Interparental Conflict and Dating Violence Among Adolescents (Jeanne M. Tschann, Lauri A. Pasch, Elena Flores, Barbara VanOss Marin, E. Marco Baisch and Charles J. Wibbelsman) (Journal of Family Issues, 2009, Vol. 30, Nº 3, págs. 295-319) - Estudio basado en las declaraciones de 223 jóvenes de 16 a 20 años, en el contexto de un estudio familiar con participación de padres y madres y seguimiento en varias etapas. En entrevistas celebradas a los 12 meses del estudio familiar inicial, los jóvenes que habían tenido pareja (n = 150, 52% mujeres) declararon sobre la violencia perpetrada y sufrida en los 6 meses anteriores, con el resultado siguiente: el 27% de las mujeres y el 24% de los hombres se declararon perpetradores de violencia física contra sus parejas; y el 22% de las mujeres y el 33% de los hombres se declararon víctimas de la violencia física ejercida por sus parejas. (Estados Unidos, 2009)
7. La prevención de la violencia en la relación amorosa entre adolescentes a través del taller «La Máscara del Amor» (Vicente Garrido Genovés y Mar Casas Tello) (Revista de Educación, 349. Mayo-agosto 2009, pp. 335-360) - Este estudio forma parte de un programa cuya idea directriz es "prevenir la violencia contra la mujer en las relaciones afectivas [...] sin que los alumnos varones se sientan estigmatizados". La muestra se compuso de 564 alumnos de 4º de ESO del municipio de Telde (Gran Canaria), de una edad media de 15,5 años y en la que el 57'9% fueron chicas. El programa fue aplicado por monitoras de la Concejalía de la Mujer del Ayuntamiento de Telde. Las chicas se declararon víctimas de abuso psicológico (insultos, humillaciones) en mayor proporción que los chicos. En cambio, los chicos sufrieron niveles notablemente superiores de agresiones físicas (bofetones y patadas). Los autores concluyen que "los chicos presentan un mayor abuso físico, probablemente porque en la cultura juvenil está muy mal visto ejercer la violencia física con las chicas, mientras que éstas hallan en la bofetada una conducta socialmente más apropiada. Como ya sabemos, en la edad adulta las tornas se cambian, y la violencia física más grave la pasan a ejercer los varones (Garrido, 2001)." [La fuente de autoridad a la que se refieren es la publicación: GARRIDO, Vicente: Amores que matan: Acoso y violencia contra las mujeres]. (España, 2009)
8. Self-reported juvenile delinquency in Finland 1995–2008 (National Research Institute of Legal Policy, Research Report No. 246, Helsinki 2009) - En el estudio se valoran, entre otros aspectos, las experiencias de violencia de pareja en adolescentes, sobre una muestra de 5.836 individuos. En conjunto, los chicos declaran niveles de victimización muy superiores a las chicas. El 9% de los chicos y el 2% de las chicas declaran haber sido golpeados con el puño o el pie, o con objetos duros, por sus parejas. El 22% de los chicos y el 6% de las chicas declaran haber sido abofeteados por sus parejas. (Finlandia, 2009)
9. A Cluster Analytic Investigation of School Violence Victimization Among Diverse Students (Erika D. Felix, Michael J. Furlong y Greg Austin) (Journal of Interpersonal Violence 2009; vol. 24; nº 10; pp. 1673-1695) - Estudio basado en los datos de la California Healthy Kids Survey, instrumento de vigilancia administrado a una muestra de 70.600 alumnos de enseñanza media del estado de California. A la pregunta "Durante los últimos 12 meses, ¿te ha agredido físicamente tu novio/novia?" respondieron afirmativamente el 5% de los chicos y el 4,3% de las chicas. (Estados Unidos, 2009)
10. Physical Dating Violence Norms and Behavior Among Sixth-Grade Students From Four U.S. Sites (Thomas R. Simon, Shari Miller, Deborah Gorman-Smith, Pamela Orpinas y Terri Sullivan) (Journal of Early Adolescence, 2009, doi: 10.1177/0272431609333301) - Estudio basado en una muestra de 5.404 adolescentes de sexto grado. Dentro del grupo que había tenido una relación sentimental durante los tres meses anteriores, el 31,4% de las chicas y el 26,4% de los chicos declararon haber perpetrado violencia física contra su pareja, mientras que el 53,7% de los chicos y el 27,4% de las chicas declararon haber sido víctimas de agresiones físicas perpetradas por sus parejas. En las preguntas se les pidió expresamente que excluyeran de sus declaraciones la violencia ejercida en defensa propia. (Estados Unidos, 2009)
11. Mental Health Correlates of Intimate Partner Violence in Marital Relationships in a Nationally Representative Sample of Males and Females (T.O. Afifi, H. MacMillan, B.J. Cox, G. Asmundson, M.B. Stein y J. Sareen) (Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2009, Vol. 24, Nº 8, págs. 1398-1417) - Datos procedentes de la National Comorbidity Survey de los Estados Unidos, obtenidos a partir de una muestra de 5.692 individuos representantiva de la población estadounidense. El 15,2% de las mujeres y el 20,3% de los hombres se declararon víctimas de la violencia perpetrada por su pareja actual. (Estados Unidos, 2009)
12. Violence against Children and Adolescents in Finland (Noora Ellonen, Juha Kääriäinen, Venla Salmi y Heikki Sariola) (National Research Institute of Legal Policy, 2009) - Resumen en inglés de la encuesta aplicada a una muestra nacionalmente representativa de alumnos de secundaria que, entre otros aspectos, declaran sobre la violencia presenciada en el hogar. Textualmente, las conclusiones son las siguientes: "Los hijos presencian violencia de la madre contra el padre o del padre contra la madre en igual medida. Estos resultados están en desacuerdo con el concepto de violencia de pareja predominante en Finlandia. En general, las medidas preventivas se han basado en el supuesto de que el perpetrador de la violencia es el hombre, y de que las mujeres y los niños son las víctimas... Los resultados de este estudio demuestran que la realidad no es tan simple. No sólo no existe diferencia significativa en cuanto a la violencia infligida a los hijos por el padre y la madre, sino que la violencia de pareja presenciada por los hijos se distribuye por igual entre ambos sexos." (Finlandia, 2009)
13. Prevalence and demographic correlates of intimate partner violence in Asian Americans (Doris F. Chang, Biing-Jiun Shen y David T. Takeuchi) (International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 32 (2009) 167–175) - Datos obtenidos a partir de una muestra de 1470 estadounideses adultos de origen asiático (707 hombres y 763 mujeres), casados o en convivencia con una pareja heterosexual. Una vez cruzados los porcentajes de perpetración y victimización declarados, la violencia global sufrida por las mujeres (12,4%) es inferior a la sufrida por los hombres (15,5%), y la violencia grave sufrida por las mujeres (1,6) es también inferior a la sufrida por los hombres (2,5). En cuanto a la iniciación de los conflictos, la mayoría de los encuestados consideraron que no estaba claro quién era el iniciador; el resto de los encuestados declaró proporciones similares de iniciación de las agresiones para ambos sexos (el 19,9% de los hombres y el 21,8% de las mujeres admitieron que solían ser los iniciadores de las agresiones; y el 15% de los hombres y el 24% de las mujeres indicaron que los iniciadores eran los cónyuges.) (Estados Unidos, 2009)
14. Prevalence and Correlates of Adolescent Dating Violence in Bangkok, Thailand (Penchan Pradubmook-Sherer ) (Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, 2009, vol. 36, no1, pp. 9-37) - Estudio aplicado a una muestra de 1.296 jóvenes de edades comprendidas entre los 14 y los 19 años. Los niveles de violencia física sufrida a manos de la pareja fueron similares para los chicos (41,9%) y para las chicas (41,2%). Los niveles de violencia verbal y emocional sufrida fueron ligeramente más altos para los chicos (49,2%) que para las chicas (46,7%). (Tailandia, 2009)
15. Official Incidents of Domestic Violence: Types, Injury, and Associations With Nonofficial Couple Aggression (Capaldi, Deborah M.; Shortt, Joann Wu; Kim, Hyoun K.; Wilson, Jane; Crosby, Lynn; Tucci, Shivan (Violence and Victims, 2009, Vol. 24, Nº 4, pp. 502-519) - Estudio longitudinal basado en una muestra inicial de 206 hombres procedentes de entornos con alta incidencia delictiva y sus parejas, con cuatro seguimientos en un intervalo de doce años (1991-2002). Sobre la base de esa muestra y ese marco temporal, se detectan 47 incidentes de violencia de pareja con intervención de la policía. En el 85% de los casos, el arrestado fue el varón, en el 6% la mujer, y en el 9% ambos. Aunque según los registros policiales, los hombres ejercían oficialmente más violencia que las mujeres, los datos extraoficiales obtenidos mediante el seguimiento particular de la encuesta demostraron que la violencia perpetrada por los hombres no era más frecuente ni más grave que la perpetrada por sus parejas femeninas. En cuanto a la totalidad de la muestra (es decir, con inclusión de los individuos no afectados por arrestos policiales), las mujeres mostraron mayores niveles de agresión hacia sus parejas que los hombres, aunque los niveles de gravedad de las agresiones fueron similares. Por consiguiente, concluyen los autores, "la idea de que las parejas involucradas en incidentes oficiales de violencia de pareja se caracterizan predominantemente por la violencia unilateral del hombre a la mujer no se ajusta a los resultados del estudio". (Estados Unidos, 2009).
16. Gender Variations in Dating Violence and Positive Conflict Resolution Among Mexican Adolescents (Antônio, Tiago; Hokoda, Audrey) (Violence and Victims, Vol. 24, Nº 4, pp. 533-545) - Estudio aplicado a una muestra de 285 adolescentes, alumnos de enseñanza media, residentes en un contexto urbano de clase media del norte de México. Como promedio, el 5,23% de las chicas y el 3,23% de los chicos declararon que habían ejercido violencia física (arrojar objetos, dar patadas, golpear, dar puñetazos, dar bofetadas, empujar o ahogar) contra sus parejas, al menos una vez durante el último año. Además, el 3,5% de las chicas y el 2,6% de los chicos declaró haber repetido el maltrato físico de tres a cinco veces, y el 1% de los chicos y de las chicas declaró haberlo repetido más de seis veces durante el último año. (México, 2009)
17. At-Risk and Maltreated Children Exposed to Intimate Partner Aggression/Violence: What the Conflict Looks Like and Its Relationship to Child Outcomes (D.J. English, J.C. Graham, R.R. Newton, T.L. Lewis, R. Thompson, J.B. Kotch y C. Weisbart) (Child Maltreatment, 2009, Vol. 14, Nº 2, págs. 157-171) - Datos procedentes del programa Longitudinal Studies of Child Abuse and Neglect (LONGSCAN), en cuyo marco se aplican entrevistas cada dos años a una muestra de hogares con riesgo de maltrato infantil distribuidos en cinco regiones de los Estados Unidos. El presente estudio se basa en las declaraciones de las mujeres sobre la violencia perpetrada en 554 hogares. Entre otros aspectos, se miden los niveles de perpetración y de unilateralidad y reciprocidad de la violencia en la pareja. "Las mujeres declararon una prevalencia de perpetración de violencia grave dos veces superior a la de sus parejas masculinas (15,3% vs. 7,7%) y una probabilidad de entablar agresiones graves cuatro veces superior a sus parejas masculinas (12,8% vs. 3,3%)". Se perpetró violencia unilateral masculina en 24 parejas y violencia unilateral femenina en 77 parejas. (Estados Unidos, 2009)
18. Gender Differences in Violence Exposure among University Students Attending Campus Health Clinics in the United States and Canada (Elizabeth M. Saewyc, David Brown, MaryBeth Plane, Marlon P. Mundt, Larissa Zakletskaia, Jennifer Wiegel y Michael F. Fleming) (Journal of Adolescent Health, doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2009.03.024 (mayo 2009). Encuesta aplicada a 2.091 alumnos universitarios con ocasión de exploraciones médicas rutinarias, en la que se les preguntó por la violencia sufrida durante los últimos seis meses. En lo que respecta a la violencia de pareja, la proporción de mujeres que se declaran víctimas de maltrato emocional (45,5%) o físico (23,7%) es similar a la proporción de hombres que se declaran víctimas de maltrato emocional (50%) o físico (20,9%). Los autores concluyen: "la mayor parte de las directrices que recomiendan investigar la violencia de pareja se centran exclusivamente en las mujeres; sin embargo, los resultados de nuestro estudio indican que los hombres están igualmente expuestos a sufrir violencia a manos de sus parejas" (pág. 7) (Estados Unidos y Canadá, 2009)
19. Problem Drinking, Unemployment, and Intimate Partner Violence among a Sample of Construction Industry Workers and their Partners (Carol B. Cunradi , Michael Todd, Michael Duke y Genevieve Ames) (Journal of Family Violence, Vol. 24, Nº 2) - Encuesta aplicada a 848 trabajadores de las construcción y sus parejas. Aproximadamente, el 20% de las parejas declararon violencia del hombre contra la mujer; y el 24% de las parejas declaró violencia de la mujer contra el hombre. En el artículo Agreement on Intimate Partner Violence Among a Sample of Blue-Collar Couples (Carol B. Cunradi, Melina Bersamin y Genevieve Ames) (Journal of Interpersonal Violence, vol. 24, nº 4, 551-568), publicado también en 2009, se analizan los resultados del mismo estudio desde el punto de vista de la coincidencia o discrepancia de los datos aportados por las parejas entrevistadas. Ambos miembros de la pareja declaran violencia del hombre contra la mujer en el 6,7% de los casos, y de la mujer contra el hombre en el 7,2% de los casos.(Estados Unidos, 2009)
20. Dating violence among school students in Tanzania and South Africa: Prevalence and socio-demographic variations (Annegreet G. Wubs, Leif E. Aarø, Alan J. Flisher, Sheri Bastien, Hans E. Onya, Sylvia Kaaya y Catherine Mathews) (Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, 2009; 37(Suppl 2): 75–86) - Los datos de este estudio se reunieron a lo largo de un período de 14 meses en centros de enseñanza media de Ciudad del Cabo y Mankweng (Sudáfrica) y Dar es Salaam (Tanzanía) mediante la aplicación de cuestionarios semestrales a una muestra final de 6.979 individuos. Los chicos presentaron niveles significativamente mayores de perpetración y victimización respecto de casi todo tipo de comportamientos, por lo que, según los autores, "los resultados son ambiguos y difíciles de interpretar". Si se cruzan los porcentajes declarados por ambos sexos para los distintos comportamientos (cuadro 1) y se hace el promedio, el 8,7% de los chicos y el 10,3% de las chicas fueron víctimas de agresiones. En cuanto a la pregunta general "¿Te ha pegado alguna vez tu pareja?", respondieron afirmativamente el 15,5 de los chicos y el 14,5 de las chicas. (Sudáfrica y Tanzanía, 2009)
21. Violence in Juvenile Dating Relationships Self-Reported Prevalence and Attitudes in a Portuguese Sample (Carla Machado, Sónia Caridade y Carla Martins) (Journal of Family Violence, DOI 10.1007/s10896-009-9268-x, julio de 2009) - Estudio de la violencia de pareja realizado sobre una muestra nacional de 4.667 participantes de edades comprendidas entre los 13 y los 29 años. Los datos se reunieron en ocho universidades, 12 institutos de enseñanza media y 16 escuelas profesionales. En lo que respecta a la violencia física total, los porcentajes cruzados de perpetración y victimización arrojan tasas de perpetración de violencia más altas en las mujeres (55,2%) que en los hombres (44,8%), si bien los porcentajes de perpetración de violencia física grave son más altos en los hombres (53,2%) que en las mujeres (46,8%). Las autoras concluyen: "Más mujeres que hombres declaran maltrato (general, emocional y físico) sobre sus parejas, y el género (femenino) se presenta como un predictor significativo de perpetración de violencia". (Portugal, 2009)
22. Persistence and Desistance of the Perpetration of Physical Aggression Across Relationships - Findings From a National Study of Adolescents (Daniel J. Whitaker, Brenda Le y Phyllis Holditch Niolon) (Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2009, doi:10.1177/0886260509334402) - Estudio basado en el National Longitudinal Study on Adolescent Health, con datos procedentes de una muestra de 6.446 jóvenes de edades comprendidas entre los 18 y los 26 años que informaron sobre sus dos últimas relaciones sentimentales. Las mujeres fueron perpetradoras de más violencia que los hombres, tanto en la primera relación (24,5% vs. 11,1%) como en la segunda (21,3% vs. 9,8%). (Estados Unidos, 2009)
23. Partner Violence and Sexual Jealousy in China: A Population-Based Survey (Tianfu Wang, William L. Parish, Edward O. Laumann y Ye Luo) (Violence against Women 2009; vol. 15; nº 7; págs. 774-798) - Encuesta nacional aplicada a una muestra de 3.806 individuos, representativa de la población china de 20 a 64 años. En conjunto de la muestra total, el 5% de las mujeres y el 4% de los hombres sufrieron agresiones físicas no recíprocas a manos de sus parejas, y otro 2% participó en agresiones recíprocas. A la edad de 30 años, el 7,7% de las mujeres y el 6,8% de los hombres sufrieron agresiones físicas no recíprocas, y el 4,4% experimentó agresiones recíprocas. (China, 2009)
24. Perpetration of Intimate Partner Aggression by Men and Women in the Philippines: Prevalence and Associated Factors (Donna L. Ansara y Michelle J. Hindin) (Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2009, vol. 24, nº 9, págs. 1579-1590) - Estudio basado en los datos de la encuesta longitudinal 2002 Cebu Longitudinal Health and Nutrition Survey. La muestra utilizada para el presente estudio está compuesta por 1.861 mujeres casadas o emparejadas, en su mayoría de edades próximas a los 45 años. El 26% de las mujeres declararon que, durante el último año, ellas o sus parejas habían perpetrado, como mínimo, un acto de agresión física, siendo las mujeres perpetradoras de mayores niveles de violencia unilateral (9,9%) que los hombres (5,9%). En cambio, dentro del grupo que declaró algún tipo de violencia, el 3,4% de las mujeres causó a su pareja lesiones que necesitaron atención médica, mientras que 7,3% de las mujeres sufrió lesiones que requirieron atención médica. (Filipinas, 2009)
25. Gender Symmetry, Sexism, and Intimate Partner Violence (Christopher T. Allen, Suzanne C. Swan y Chitra Raghavan) (Journal of Interpersonal Violence 2009; vol. 24; nº 11; pág. 1816-1834) - Estudio basado en una muestra de 92 hombres y 140 mujeres, todos ellos alumnos universitarios de 18 y 19 años de edad. El 55% de las mujeres y el 41% de los hombres declararon haber perpetrado violencia contra sus parejas; y el 47% de las mujeres y el 37% de los hombres declararon haber sido víctimas de violencia a manos de sus parejas. (Estados Unidos, 2009)
26. Physical and sexual intimate partner violence and reported serious psychological distress in the 2007 BRFSS (Valerie J. Edwards, Michele C. Black, Satvinder Dhingra, Lela McKnight-Eily y Geraldine S. Perry) (International Journal of Public Health, 54 (2009), S37–S42, DOI 10.1007/s00038-009-0005-2) - En este estudio se muestran los resultados de la encuesta oficial del Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) 2007 correspondientes a tres estados ((Hawaii, Nebraska, y Virginia) de los Estados Unidos. La muestra conjunta, representativa de la población adulta, está integrada por de 5.985 hombres y 9.335 mujeres. En la evaluación de la violencia física se incluyen las amenazas y conatos de agresión, y el período abarcado es toda la vida de los encuestados. Globalmente, el porcentaje de víctimas femeninas (19,9%) es casi el doble que el de víctimas masculinas (10,9%). En cambio, si se considera únicamente la violencia física, el porcentaje de víctimas femeninas (9,4%) es sólo ligeramente superior al de víctimas masculinas (7,8%). (Estados Unidos, 2009)
27. Intimate Partner Violence and Contribution of Drinking and Sociodemographics: The Brazilian National Alcohol Survey (Marcos Zaleski, Ilana Pinsky, Ronaldo Laranjeira, Suhasini Ramisetty-Mikler y Raul Caetano) (Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2009, anticipo editorial en línea, doi:10.1177/0886260509334396) – Se entrevistó a una muestra de 1.445 hombres y mujeres casados o en cohabitación para estimar la prevalencia de la violencia de pareja. Los niveles de perpetración de violencia de hombres contra mujeres fueron del 10,7%, y los niveles de perpetración de violencia de mujeres contra hombres fueron del 14,6%. (Brasil, 2009)
28. Like Parent, Like Child: Intergenerational Transmission of Partner Violence in Cebu, the Philippines (Jessica A. Fehringer, Michelle J. Hindin) (Journal of Adolescent Health, 2009 (Vol. 44, Nº 4, 363-371) – Según los datos procedentes del estudio "Cebu Longitudinal Health and Nutrition Survey in Cebu, the Philippines", obtenidos en 1994, 2002 y 2005 mediante el seguimiento longitudinal de una muestra de 472 jóvenes casados o en cohabitación, la prevalencia de la perpetración de violencia de pareja fue del 55,8% para las mujeres y del 25,1% para los hombres, mientras que la prevalencia de la victimización fue del 27,7% para las mujeres y del 30,5% para los hombres. (Filipinas, 2009)
29. Alcohol Use and Perceived Social and Emotional Consequences Among Perpetrators of General and Sexual Aggression (Cynthia A. Stappenbeck y Kim Fromme) (Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2009, doi:10.1177/0886260509334399) - Estudio realizado sobre una muestra de 2.941 universitarios (59% de ellos, mujeres), para determinar la relación entre consumo de alcohol y violencia de pareja perpetrada durante los 3 meses anteriores. El 61% de los perpetradores de agresiones verbales y físicas y el 52% de de los perpetradores de agresiones sexuales fueron mujeres. La violencia de los hombres estuvo más asociada al consumo de alcohol que la de las mujeres. (Estados Unidos, 2009)
30. British Crime Survey 2007/2008. En el informe general de esta prestigiosa encuesta, publicado en julio de 2008, se indica que los datos más fiables sobre violencia doméstica son los obtenidos mediante cuestionario autocompletado en ordenador, en lugar de las entrevistas personales utilizadas para el resto de la encuesta, y se anuncia el análisis de esos datos en un futuro informe (pág. 67). Utilizamos, por lo tanto, los datos de ese segundo informe, publicado a comienzos de 2009. En el cuadro 3.02 se resumen los datos relativos a la violencia de pareja, según los cuales, los porcentajes de violencia física total sufrida durante los doce meses anteriores fueron del 2,2% para las mujeres y del 2% para los hombres, al tiempo que los porcentajes de violencia física grave sufrida en ese período fueron del 1,5% para las mujeres y del 1,4% para los hombres. (Reino Unido, 2009)
31. A Cluster Analytic Investigation of School Violence Victimization Among Diverse Students (Erika D. Felix, Michael J. Furlong y Greg Austin) (Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2009, anticipo editoria en línea, doi:10.1177/0886260509331507) - Muestra de 70.600 alumnos de enseñanza secundaria del estado de California. "Casi el 5% de los alumnos declaró haber sido víctima de violencia física a manos de su pareja [...] Chicos y chicas declararon niveles similares de violencia de pareja" (pág. 9). "Al igual que en estudios anteriores (Gray&Fosey), pero contrariamente a las expectativas sociales, el estudio demostró que chicos y chicas habían experimentado niveles similares de violencia de pareja" (pág. 16). (Estados Unidos, 2009)
32. Dating Violence Among High School Students in Southeastern North Carolina (Yeoun Soo Kim-Godwin, Carrie Clements, Ashley M. McCuiston y Jane A. Fox) (Journal of School Nursing, 2009, vol. 25 Nº 2, págs. 141-151) - Estudio basado en los datos de la Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS) de 2005 y 2007 relativos a sendas muestras de 375 y 372 alumnos de secundaria de 13 a 18 años. Entre otros aspectos, se estudió la violencia de pareja sufrida durante los doce meses anteriores. En 2005, el 15% de los chicos y el 8% de las chicas declararon haber sido agredidos físicamente por sus parejas. En cambio, en 2007, el 9,7% de los chicos y el 15,6% de las chicas declararon haber sido agredidos físicamente por sus parejas. Los niveles de violencia sexual (definida como "haber sido forzado físicamente a tener relaciones sexuales cuando no quería") fueron similares para ambos sexos (en torno al 10%) en las dos evaluaciones. (Estados Unidos, 2009)
33. Intimate Partner Violence Among Hispanic Men and Women: The Role of Drinking, Neighborhood Disorder, and Acculturation-Related Factors (Cunradi, Carol B.) (Violence and Victims, Volume 24, Number 1, 2009 , pp. 83-97(15)) – En una submuestra de 1.148 hombres y 1.399 mujeres hispanos participantes en la 2000 National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, los niveles de perpetración de violencia de pareja declarados por los hombres (6,1%) fueron algo inferiores a los declarados por las mujeres (6,5%), mientras que los niveles de victimización declarados por los hombres (8,8%) fueron superiores a los declarados por las mujeres (7,8%). (Estados Unidos, 2009)
34. Is Psychological Aggression as Detrimental as Physical Aggression? The Independent Effects of Psychological Aggression on Depression and Anxiety Symptoms (Lawrence, Erika; Yoon, Jeungeun; Langer, Amie; Ro, Eunyoe) (Violence and Victims, Volume 24, Number 1, 2009 , pp. 20-35(16)) – Muestra de 103 parejas de recién casados a los que se evaluó cuatro veces durante los tres primeros años de matrimonio. Como promedio, maridos y esposas declararon niveles moderados de violencia psíquica, y no se constataron diferencias en función del sexo respecto de las tasas de prevalencia o los niveles de victimización. En cuanto a la violencia física, el 44% de los maridos y el 52% de las esposas emprendieron agresiones contra sus parejas. (Estados Unidos, 2009)
35. No One Type of Intimate Partner Abuse: Exploring Physical and Non-Physical Abuse Among Intimate Partners (Maureen Outlaw) - (Journal of Family Violence, 2009, anticipo editorial en línea, DOI 10.1007/s10896-009-9228-5) – Utilizando los datos de la encuesta sistematizada por Tjaden y Thoennes (1998), este estudio examina la prevalencia de diferentes tipos de maltrato no físico. Según esos datos, el maltrato no físico de pareja es más frecuente que el físico y no muestra diferencias significativas en función del sexo, como suele creerse. Hay datos concluyentes que demuestran que algunos tipos de maltrato no físico constituyen claros factores de riesgo de maltrato físico y violencia más frecuente contra quienes son ya víctimas de maltrato, pero tampoco estos datos son diferentes en función del sexo. (Estados Unidos, 2009)
36. Mutual Partner Violence Mental Health Symptoms Among Female and Male Victims in Four Racial/Ethnic Groups (Moisés Próspero y Miseong Kim) (Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2009, anticipo editorial en línea, doi:10.1177/0886260508327705) – Estudio aplicado a una muestra de 676 universitarios. En contradicción con los detractores de las CTS como instrumento que no permitiría discernir los porcentajes de violencia defensiva femenina, este estudio permitió constatar que hombres y mujeres utilizaban conductas de coacción y comportamientos de violencia física y sexual hacia sus parejas, por lo que es posible que tanto hombres como mujeres utilicen la violencia para controlar a sus parejas (pág. 14). Según sus conclusiones, los comportamientos de coacción o violencia en las relaciones de pareja no son únicamente unidireccionales ni en ellos los hombres ejercen de perpetradores y las mujeres de víctimas, sino que "la mayor parte de las relaciones violentas se explican por una violencia mutua" (pág. 16). (Estados Unidos, 2009)
37. The Longitudinal Association of Adolescent Dating Violence With Psychiatric Disorders and Functioning (Adrienne Brown, Elizabeth Cosgrave, Eóin Killackey, Rosemary Purcell, Joe Buckby y Alison R. Yung) (Journal of Interpersonal Violence, anticipo editorial en línea, doi:10.1177/0886260508327700) – Se evaluó la violencia de pareja en una muestra final de 98 jóvenes de 15 a 24 años (54% mujeres) a los que se realizó un seguimiento longitudinal durante seis meses. A la pregunta "Durante los doce últimos meses, tu pareja te golpeó, abofeteó o agredió físicamente adrede", respondieron afirmativamente el 11,3% de las mujeres y el 15,6% de los hombres. (Australia, 2009)
38. Psychosocial Correlates of Physical Dating Violence Victimization Among Latino Early Adolescents (Fang A. Yan, Donna E. Howard, Kenneth H. Beck, Teresa Shattuck y Melissa Hallmark-Kerr) (Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2009, anticipo editorial en línea, doi:10.1177/0886260509336958) - Encuesta anónima aplicada a una muestra de conveniencia integrada por 322 adolescentes latinos de 11 a 13 años. En conjunto, el 13,5% de los encuestados se declararon víctimas de violencia física de pareja durante el año anterior. La prevalencia fue el 14,4% para las chicas y del 12,9% para los chicos. (Estados Unidos, 2009)
39. Sex-Symmetric Effects of Coercive Behaviors on Mental Health?: Not Exactly (Moisés Próspero) (Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2009, Vol. 24, Nº 1, págs. 128-146) - Estudio basado en una muestra de 573 universitarios (edad media: 21,4 años) a los que se preguntó por la violencia de pareja sufrida durante el año inmediatamente anterior. Se declararon víctimas de violencia física el 46,4% de las mujeres y el 41,9% de los hombres. Asimismo, los hombres y las mujeres se declararon víctimas de violencia verbal y sexual y de comportamientos de coacción (coacción económica, amenazas, intimidación, coacción emocional y aislamiento) en proporciones muy similares. (Estados Unidos, 2009)
40. Violence Between Therapy-Seeking Veterans and Their Partners: Prevalence and Characteristics of Nonviolent, Mutually Violent, and One-Sided Violent Couples (Andra L. Teten, Michelle D. Sherman y Xiaotong Han) (Journal of Interpersonal Violence 2009; vol. 24; nº 1; págs. 111-127) - Estudio basado en una muestra de 184 parejas sometidas a terapia relacional. En todas ellas, el varón era veterano del ejército al que se le había diagnosticado trastorno de estrés postraumático. En lo que respecta a la prevalencia de la violencia de pareja, las parejas se clasificaron en tres grupos: sin violencia (44%), con violencia recíproca (26%) y con violencia unidireccional (30%). En las parejas con violencia unidireccional, los niveles de perpetración fueron del 56% para los hombres y del 44% para las mujeres. (Estados Unidos, 2009)
41. Parenting and Violence Toward Self, Partners, and Others Among Inner-City Young Adults (Lydia O’Donnell, Ann Stueve y Athi Myint-U) (American Journal of Public Health, 2009, Vol. 99, Nº 12, págs. 2255-2260) - Estudio longitudinal basado en las declaraciones realizadas en 2005-2007 por una muestra de 990 jóvenes adultos constituida en 1995, cuando los entrevistados cursaban enseñanza secundaria, en el marco del Reach for Health Study de Nueva York. La edad media de los entrevistados fue de 23,5 años. El 19,2% de los hombres se declararon perpetradores de violencia física contra sus parejas, en comparación con el 17.1% de las mujeres. (Estados Unidos, 2009)
42. Comparisons of Intimate Partner Violence Among Partners in Same-Sex and Opposite-Sex Relationships in the United States (John R. Blosnich y Robert M. Bossarte) (American Journal of Public Health, 2009, vol. 99, Nº 12, págs. 2182-2184) - Los datos analizados proceden de la encuesta del Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (ediciones de 2005, 2006 y 2007) y corresponden a los 7.998 participantes que se declararon víctimas de violencia de pareja en esa encuesta. Dentro de ese grupo, que se desglosa por parejas heterosexuales y homosexuales, 88,8% de las mujeres se declararon víctimas de agresiones físicas perpetradas por sus parejas masculinas, y el 97,2% de los hombres se declararon víctimas de agresiones físicas perpetradas por sus parejas femeninas. (Estados Unidos, 2009)
43. Early exposure to violence, domestic violence, attachment representations, and marital adjustment (Natacha Godbout, Donald G. Dutton, Yvan Lussier y Stéphane Sabourin) (Personal Relationships, 16 (2009), 365–384) - Estudio basado en una muestra de 315 hombres y 329 mujeres en relaciones estables de pareja durante los últimos siete años, como promedio. La muestra se constituyó mediante marcado telefónico aleatorio en la provincia canadiense de Quebec. El 31% de las mujeres y el 23% de los hombres se declararon perpetradores de violencia física contra sus parejas durante el año anterior. Los porcentajes de perpetración de violencia psicológica fueron del 86% para las mujeres y del 80% para los hombres. (Canadá, 2009)
44. Violent attitudes and mental health symptoms among mutually violent Ghanaian couples (Moisés Próspero, Peter Dwumah y Kwadwo Ofori-Dua) (Journal of Aggression, Conflict and Peace Research, 2009, vol. 1, nº 2, págs. 16-23) - Estudio basado en una muestra de 358 universitarios de Ghana (edad media, 27 años; 51% de mujeres) que durante el último año habían mantenido relaciones de pareja. Los hombres declaran mayores niveles de perpetración de violencia, pero no se aprecian diferencias significativas entre hombres y mujeres en las declaraciones sobre la violencia sufrida a manos de sus parejas (victimización) o sobre la utilización de comportamientos de control. (Ghana, 2009)
45. Drug Use and Intimate Partner Violence Among College Students: An In-Depth Exploration (Erin L. Nabors) (Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2009, doi:10.1177/0886260509340543) - Estudio sobre la relación entre el consumo de drogas y las violencia de pareja, basado en los datos del Relationship Characteristics Study aplicado a una muestra de 1.938 universitarios de Florida en 2001. Tanto los niveles de consumo de drogas como de perpetración de violencia de pareja fueron similares para ambos sexos; más concretamente, el 31,6% de las alumnas y el el 27,8% de los alumnos habían agredido físicament a sus parejas durante los doce meses anteriores a la aplicación de la encuesta. (Estados Unidos, 2009)
46. Intimate Partner Violence Perpetration Among College Students: The Role of Gender Role and Gendered Violence Attitudes (Erin L. Nabors y Jana L. Jasinski) (Feminist Criminology, 2009; vol. 4; nº 1; págs. 57-82) - Los datos utilizados en este proyecto proceden del Longitudinal Study of Violence Against Women: Victimization and Perpetration Among College Students in a State-Supported University in the United States, 1990-1995, aplicado a una muestra de 1.580 mujeres y 851 hombres, con cinco mediciones realizadas a lo largo de cuatro años. Se formularon dos preguntas sobre violencia leve (arrojar objetos, agarrar y empujar) y otras dos sobre violencia más grave (golpear y golpear con objetos). El 30% de las mujeres y el 18% de los hombres se declararon perpetradores de violencia contra sus parejas. Las autoras consideran que este mayor predominio de violencia femenina se debe a que sólo se midieron actos de violencia de poca gravedad. (Estados Unidos, 2009)
47. Effects of Physical and Verbal Aggression, Depression, and Anxiety on Drinking Behavior of Married Partners: A Prospective and Retrospective Longitudinal Examination (Margaret K. Keiley, Peggy S. Keller, y Mona El-Sheikh) (Aggressive Behavior, Vol. 35, págs. 296–312 (2009)) - Los datos de este trabajo proceden de un estudio longitudinal aplicado a 195 parejas, casadas desde hacía 16 años, como promedio. Entre las dos fases del estudio transcurrió un intervalo de dos años y medio, y en ambas fases se aplicó el mismo cuestionario sobre consumo de alcohol, conflictos familiares y bienestar de los hijos. En lo que respecta a los conflictos familiares, se preguntó a ambos miembros de la pareja sobre la violencia de pareja perpetrada por ellos y por sus cónyuges durante el año inmediatamente anterior a la aplicación de la encuesta. Según los resultados globales cruzados, el 26% de las mujeres y el 14% de los hombres habían perpetrado violencia física contra sus parejas durante ese año. (Estados Unidos, 2009)
48. Exposure to Domestic Violence Between Parents: A Perspective From Tehran, Iran (Meroe Vameghi, Ali Feizzadeh, Arash Mirabzadeh y Golnaz Feizzadeh) (Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2009, doi:10.1177/0886260509340532) - Estudio aplicado a 1.495 alumnos de enseñanza secundaria (curso escolar de 2005-2006, 47'2% de chicas, edad media: 16,1 años) para determinar la violencia interparental presenciada a lo largo de su vida. Casi el doble de chicas que de chicos declararon haber presenciado violencia entre sus padres. En el 54,3% de los casos, el padre fue el único perpetrador; en el 37,5% de los casos, la violencia entre los padres fue recíproca; y en el 3,4% de los casos, la madre fue la única perpetradora. (Irán, 2009)
49. Commission Versus Receipt of Violence During Pregnancy: Associations With Substance Abuse Variables (Golfo K. Tzilos, Emily R. Grekin, Jessica R. Beatty, Sara K. Chase y Steven J. Ondersma) (Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2009, doi:10.1177/0886260509354507) - Estudio basado en una muestra inicial de 78 mujeres embarazadas, pacientes de una unidad de cuidados prenatales. De ellas, 5 declararon niveles similares de perpetración y recepción de violencia y fueron descartadas del estudio para análisis ulteriores. De las 73 restantes, el 47% declaró mayores niveles de perpetración que de recepción de violencia, y el 14% declaró mayores niveles de recepción que de perpetración de violencia. En general los actos de violencia física fueron leves (empujar o agarrar) y sólo el 8% de los casos fueron graves (pegar o usar armas). (Estados Unidos, 2009)
50. Gender Differences in Partner Violence in Context: Deconstructing Johnson’s (2001) Control-Based Typology of Violent Couples (Jody M. Ross y Julia C. Babcock) (Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 2009, vol. 18, págs. 604–622) - Estudio basado en una muestra de 281 parejas casadas o en situación equiparable al matrimonio que, en sesiones de unas tres horas por pareja, rellenaron por separado una serie de cuestionarios y participaron después en un debate en común. En la preselección de la muestra, relacionada con otro estudio de mayor amplitud, se aplicó el criterio de que la mujer hubiera declarado previamente insatisfacción o victimización en la pareja, lo que, según los autores, "pudo limitar el número de parejas en las que la mujer fuese perpetradora en exclusiva o de violencia grave". En conjunto, las mujeres perpetraron más actos violentos y un número similar de actos de control que sus parejas masculinas, y mostraron más hostilidad que los hombres durante el debate en común. Aunque la selección de la muestra se basó en la insatisfacción o victimización de la mujer, el 12% de las mujeres se declararon perpetradoras únicas en la pareja, mientras que el 16,5% declararon que el hombre era el único agresor. En cambio, el 11% de los hombres declararon que la mujer era la única agresora en la pareja, mientras que el 9% declararon que el hombre era el único agresor. Por último, el 2,5% de las mujeres sufrieron lesiones, en comparación con el 2,2% de los hombres (respuestas cruzadas, cuadro 2). (Estados Unidos, 2009)
51. The Nature and Correlates of Dating Violence among Jewish and Arab Youths in Israel (Moshe Sherer) (Journal of Family Violence (2009) 24:11–26) - Estudio basado en una muestra de 1.357 jóvenes (640 judíos y 717 árabes), que arrojó los siguientes resultados sobre violencia de pareja: el 42,3% de los hombres y el 26,4% de las mujeres recibieron amenazas; el 35,3% de los hombres y el 13,3% de las mujeres sufrieron abusos de relación (malediciencia, rumores negativos, etc.); el 41,4% de los hombres y el 32,8% de las mujeres sufrieron violencia física; el 46,4% de los hombres y el 21,7% de las mujeres sufrieron abusos sexuales; y el 88,9% de los hombres y el 86,7% de las mujeres sufrieron abusos verbales. (Israel, 2009)
52. Bidirectional Partner Violence Among Homeless Young Adults: Risk Factors and Outcomes (Kimberly A. Tyler, Lisa A. Melander y HarmoniJoie Noel) (Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2009, vol. 24, nº 6, págs. 1014-1035) - Datos procedentes del Homeless Young Adult Project (HYAP), aplicado en tres ciudades (Des Moines (IA), Omaha y Lincoln (NE)) de los Estados Unidos, correspondientes a 166 jóvenes adultos (19-26 años, 40% de mujeres) con antecedentes de vagabundeo y vida sin hogar. Si se cruzan las declaraciones de ambos sexos, las tasas de perpetración de violencia de pareja son más altas en las mujeres (72%) que en los hombres (64%), con niveles similares de agresiones graves en mujeres (17%) y hombres (18,5%). (Estados Unidos, 2009)
53. Sex Differences in Intimate Partner Violence and the Use of Coercive Control as a Motivational Factor for Intimate Partner Violence (Marieh Tanha, Connie J. A. Beck, Aurelio José Figueredo y Chitra Raghavan) (Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2009, DOI: 10.1177/0886260509354501) – Estudio basado en las declaraciones de 762 parejas participantes en un programa de mediación en el marco de sus procesos judiciales de divorcio. Aunque los autores insisten en que los hombres perpetraron más violencia, los datos no difieren sustancialemente en función del sexo. Durante los 12 meses anteriores a la aplicación del cuestionario, las mujeres sufrieron el 20,8% del maltrato píquico y el 2,9% del maltrato físico, mientras que en el caso de los hombres, los porcentajes relativos a ambos tipos de maltrato fueron del 17,2% y del 2,8%, respectivamente. (Estados Unidos, 2009)
54. Patterns of Intimate Partner Violence Victimization from Adolescence to Young Adulthood in a Nationally Representative Sample (Carolyn Tucker Halpern, Aubrey L. Spriggs, Sandra L. Martin y Lawrence L. Kupper) (Journal of Adolescent Health 45 (2009) 508–516) – Estudio basado en los datos del National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, instrumento longitudinal aplicado a 4.134 individuos de edades comprendidas entre los 13 y los 23 años en tres fases que abarcaron un intervalo de seis años (1995-2001). En cada una de esas fases, los porcentajes de violencia global sufrida a manos de sus parejas fueron ligeramente superiores para las mujeres (9,1%, 27,4% y 7,8%) que para los hombres (7,3%, 21,8% y 6,6%). Esos porcentajes abarcan tanto la violencia física como determinados tipos de violencia psíquica, incluida la insistencia en mantener relaciones sexuales. (Estados Unidos, 2009)
55. Exposure to Family Violence in Childhood and Intimate Partner Perpetration or Victimization in Adulthood: Exploring Intergenerational Transmission in Urban Thailand (Kent R. Kerley, Xiaohe Xu, Bangon Sirisunyaluck y Joseph M. Alley) (Journal of Family Violence, 2009, DOI 10.1007/s10896-009-9295-7) – Estudio basado en una muestra de 816 mujeres (de una edad media de 39 años) para determinar la influencia de los antecedentes familiares en los actuales niveles de violencia perpetrada y sufrida en la pareja. El período abarcado fueron los doce meses inmediatamente anteriores a la aplicación de la encuesta. Las mujeres entrevistadas se declararon perpetradoras en porcentajes del 66,33% para la violencia psicológica y del 39,60% para la violencia física; y víctimas en porcentajes del 62,67% para la violencia psicológica y del 34,80% para la violencia física. (Tailandia, 2009)
56. Prevalence of Rural Intimate Partner Violence in 16 US States, 2005 (Matthew J. Breiding, Jessica S. Ziembroski y Michele C. Black) (The Journal of Rural Health, Vol. 25, Nº 3, págs. 240 – 246) – Estudio basado en una muestra de 25.000 residentes rurales de 16 estados, participantes en la encuesta del Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) de 2005. El 26,7% de las mujeres y el 15,5% de los hombres se declararon víctimas de alguna forma de violencia de pareja experimentada a lo largo de su vida. (Estados Unidos, 2009)
57. Gender Variation in Partner Abuse: Findings From a Conservative Christian Denomination (René D. Drumm, Marciana Popescu and Matt L. Riggs) (Affilia 2009; 24; 56) – Estudio basado en una muestra de 1.431 fieles de una confesión cristiana conservadora, correspondientes a 48 centros parroquiales del noroeste de los Estados Unidos. El estudio fue supervisado por especialistas de la Universidad de Andrews. Se encuestó a personas de todas las edades, con participación mayoritariamente femenina (61%) y se evaluaron los porcentajes de violencia de pareja sufrida lo largo de toda la vida. Las mujeres declararon porcentajes globales de victimización por violencia física del 33,8%; y los hombres, del 20,1%. (Estados Unidos, 2009)
58. Partner exploitation and violence in teenage intimate relationships (Christine Barter, Melanie McCarry, David Berridge y Kathy Evans) (Universidad de Bristol y NSPCC) – Estudio basado en una muestra de 1.353 jóvenes (680 chicas y 669 chicos), que declararon niveles similares de perpetración y victimización por violencia de pareja. El 25% de las chicas y el 18% de los chicos declararon haber sufrido algún tipo de violencia física a manos de su pareja; el 11% de las chicas y el 4% de los chicos declararon que esa violencia fue grave. En cambio, el 25% de las chicas y el 8% de los chicos se declararon perpetradores de violencia física contra sus parejas; el 5% de las chicas y el 2% de los chicos declararon que esa violencia fue grave. (Reino Unido, 2009)
References examining assaults by women on their spouses or male partners
http://www.csulb.edu/~mfiebert/assault.htm
Martin S. Fiebert Department of Psychology California State University, Long Beach
Last updated: September 2008
SUMMARY: This bibliography examines 246 scholarly investigations: 187 empirical studies and 59 reviews and/or analyses, which demonstrate that women are as physically aggressive, or more aggressive, than men in their relationships with their spouses or male partners. The aggregate sample size in the reviewed studies exceeds 237,750.
Aizenman, M., & Kelley, G. (1988). The incidence of violence and acquaintance rape in dating relationships among college men and women. Journal of College Student Development, 29, 305-311. (A sample of actively dating college students 204 responded to a survey examining courtship violence. Authors report that there were no significant differences between the sexes in self reported perpetration of physical abuse.)
Anderson, K. L. (2002). Perpetrator or victim? Relationships between intimate partner violence and well-being. Journal of Marriage and Family, 64, 851-863. (Data consisted of 7,395 married and cohabiting heterosexual couples drawn from wave 1 of the National Survey of Families and Households . In terms of measures: subjects were asked "how many arguments during the past year resulted in 'you hitting, shoving or throwing things at a partner.' They were also asked how many arguments ended with their partner, 'hitting, shoving or throwing things at you.'" Author reports that, "victimization rates are slightly higher among men than women <9%> and in cases that involve perpetration by only one partner, more women than men were identified as perpetrators <2%>.")
Archer, J. (2000). Sex differences in aggression between heterosexual partners: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 651-680. (Meta-analyses of sex differences in physical aggression indicate that women were more likely than men to “use one or more acts of physical aggression and to use such acts more frequently.” In terms of injuries, women were somewhat more likely to be injured, and analyses reveal that 62% of those injured were women.)
Archer, J. (2002). Sex differences in physically aggressive acts between heterosexual partners: A meta-analytic review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 7, 213-351. (Analyzing responses to the Conflict Tactic Scale and using a data set somewhat different from the previous 2000 publication, the author reports that women are more likely than men to throw something at their partners, as well as slap, kick, bite, punch and hit with an object. Men were more likely than women to strangle, choke, or beat up their partners.)
Archer, J. (2006). Cross cultural differences in physical aggression between partners: A social-role analysis. Personality & Social Psychology Review, 10, 133-153. (A review article which suggests that "women's empowerment is associated with lower victimization rates from their partners." Greater individualism and empowerment by women, however, are also associated with higher perpetration rates.)
Archer, J., & Ray, N. (1989). Dating violence in the United Kingdom: a preliminary study. Aggressive Behavior, 15, 337-343. (Twenty three dating couples completed the Conflict Tactics scale. Results indicate that women were significantly more likely than their male partners to express physical violence. Authors also report that, "measures of partner agreement were high" and that the correlation between past and present violence was low.)
Arias, I., Samios, M., & O'Leary, K. D. (1987). Prevalence and correlates of physical aggression during courtship. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2, 82-90. (Used Conflict Tactics Scale with a sample of 270 undergraduates <95> and found 30% of men and 49% of women reported using some form of aggression in their dating histories with a greater percentage of women engaging in severe physical aggression.)
Arias, I., & Johnson, P. (1989). Evaluations of physical aggression among intimate dyads. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 4, 298-307. (Used Conflict Tactics Scale-CTS- with a sample of 103 male and 99 female undergraduates. Both men and women had similar experience with dating violence, 19% of women and 18% of men admitted being physically aggressive. A significantly greater percentage of women thought self-defense was a legitimate reason for men to be aggressive, while a greater percentage of men thought slapping was a legitimate response for a man or woman if their partner was sexually unfaithful.)
Arriaga, X. B., & Foshee, V. A. (2004). Adolescent dating violence. Do adolescents follow in their friends' or their parents' footsteps? Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 19, 162-184. (A modified version of Conflict Tactics Scale was administered on two occasions, 6 months apart, to 526 adolescents, <280> whose median age was 13. Results reveal that 28% of girls reported perpetrating violence with their partners <17%> on occasion one, while 42% of girls reported perpetrating violence <25%> on occasion two. For boys, 11% reported perpetrating violence <6%> on occasion one, while 21% reported perpetrating violence <6%> on occasion two. In terms of victimization, 33% of girls, and 38% of boys reported being victims of partner aggression on occasion one and 47% of girls and 49% of boys reported victimization on occasion two.
Basile, S. (2004). Comparison of abuse by same and opposite-gender litigants as cited in requests for abuse prevention orders. Journal of Family Violence, 19, 59-68. (Author examined court documents in Massachusetts for the year 1997 and found that, "male and female defendants, who were the subject of a complaint in domestic relations cases, while sometimes exhibiting different aggressive tendencies, measured almost equally abusive in terms of the overall level of psychological and physical aggression.)
Bernard, M. L., & Bernard, J. L. (1983). Violent intimacy: The family as a model for love relationships. Family Relations, 32, 283-286. (Surveyed 461 college students, 168 men, 293 women, with regard to dating violence. Found that 15% of the men admitted to physically abusing their partners, while 21% of women admitted to physically abusing their partners.)
Billingham, R. E., Bland, R., & Leary, A. (1999). Dating Violence at three time periods: 1976, 1992, 1996. Psychological Reports, 85, 574-578. (Data was collected from college students in 1986 <401>, 1992 <210> and 1996 <342>. Subjects completed the CTS and results reveal a significant decrease in partner violence over a 10 year period. However, in terms of subjects' self reported violence and report of partner violence, women were consistently more aggressive than men.)
Billingham, R. E., & Sack, A. R. (1986). Courtship violence and the interactive status of the relationship. Journal of Adolescent Research, 1, 315-325. (Using CTS with 526 university students <167> found Similar rates of mutual violence but with women reporting higher rates of violence initiation when partner had not--9% vs 3%.)
Bland, R., & Orne, H. (1986). Family violence and psychiatric disorder. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 31, 129-137. (In interviews with 1,200 randomly selected Canadians <489> found that women both engaged in and initiated violence at higher rates than their male partners.)
Bohannon, J. R., Dosser Jr., D. A., & Lindley, S. E. (1995). Using couple data to determine domestic violence rates: An attempt to replicate previous work. Violence and Victims, 10, 133-41. (Authors report that in a sample of 94 military couples 11% of wives and 7% of husbands were physically aggressive, as reported by the wives.)
Bookwala, J. (2002). The role of own and perceived partner attachment in relationship aggression. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 17, 84-100. (In a sample of 161 undergraduates, 34.3% of women reported being victims of partner aggression compared to 55.9% of men.)
Bookwala, J., Frieze, I. H., Smith, C., & Ryan, K. (1992). Predictors of dating violence: A multi variate analysis. Violence and Victims, 7, 297-311. (Used CTS with 305 college students <227> and found that 133 women and 43 men experienced violence in a current or recent dating relationship. Authors reports that "women reported the expression of as much or more violence in their relationships as men." While most violence in relationships appears to be mutual--36% reported by women, 38% by men-- women report initiating violence with non violent partners more frequently than men <22%>).
Brinkerhoff, M., & Lupri, E. (1988). Interspousal violence. Canadian Journal of Sociology, 13, 407-434. (Examined Interspousal violence in a representative sample of 562 couples in Calgary, Canada. Used Conflict Tactics Scale and found twice as much wife-to-husband as husband-to-wife severe violence <10.7%>. The overall violence rate for husbands was 10.3% while the overall violence rate for wives was 13.2%. Violence was significantly higher in younger and childless couples. Results suggest that male violence decreased with higher educational attainment, while female violence increased.)
Brown, G. (2004). Gender as a factor in the response of the law-enforcement system to violence against partners. Sexuality and Culture, 8, (3-4), 3-139. (Summarizes partner violence data from the 1999 Canadian General Social Survey . The GSS is based on a representative sample of 25,876 persons. Overall in the 12-month period preceding the survey, an estimated 3% Canadian women and 2% of Canadian men reported experiencing violence from their partners. During the 5 year period from 1995-1999, an estimated 8% of Canadian women and 7% of Canadian men reported violence from their partners. Reviewed police and legal responses to partner violence in Edmonton, Canada and concludes that ". . . men who are involved in disputes with their partners, whether as alleged victims or as alleged offenders or both, are disadvantaged and treated less favorably than women by the law-enforcement system at almost every step.")
Brush, L. D. (1990). Violent Acts and injurious outcomes in married couples: Methodological issues in the National Survey of Families and Households. Gender & Society, 4, 56-67. (Used the Conflict Tactics scale in a large national survey, n=5,474, and found that women engage in same amount of spousal violence as men.)
Brutz, J., & Ingoldsby, B. B. (1984). Conflict resolution in Quaker families. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 46, 21-26. (Used Conflict Tactics Scale with a sample of 288 Quakers <130> and found a slightly higher rate of female to male violence <15.2%> than male to female violence <14.6%>.)
Burke, P. J., Stets, J. E., & Pirog-Good, M. A. (1988). Gender identity, self-esteem, and physical and sexual abuse in dating relationships. Social Psychology Quarterly, 51, 272-285. (A sample of 505 college students <298> completed the CTS. Authors reports that they found "no significant difference between men and women in reporting inflicting or sustaining physical abuse." Specifically, within a one year period they found that 14% of the men and 18% of the women reported inflicting physical abuse, while 10% of the men and 14% of the women reported sustaining physical abuse.)
Caetano, R., Schafter, J., Field, C., & Nelson, S. M. (2002). Agreement on reports of intimate partner violence among white, Black, and Hispanic couples in the United States. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 17, 1308-1322. (A probability sample of 1635 couples was interviewed and assessed with the CTS. Agreement concerning intimate partner violence was about 40%, with no differences reported across ethnicities. Women significantly reported perpetrating more partner violence than men in all three ethnic groups.)
Callahan, M. R., Tolman, R. M., & Saunders, D. G. (2003). Adolescent dating violence victimization and psychological well-being. Journal of Adolescent Research, 18(6), 664-681. (Subjects were 190 high school students <53%> who completed a modified version of the CTS2. In terms of injuries, 22% of girls and 17% of boys reported being injured by their dating partners. Note this difference was nonsignificant.)
Capaldi, D. M. & Crosby, L. (1997). Observed and reported psychological and physical aggression in young, at-risk couples. Social Development, 6, 184-206. (A sample of 118 young men and their dating partners were surveyed regarding their own physical aggression as well as that of their partners. Findings reveal that 31% of men and 36% of women engaged "in an act of physical aggression against their current partner.")
Capaldi, D. M, Kim, H. K., & Shortt, J. W. (2004). Women's involvement in aggression in young adult romantic relationships. In M. Putallaz and K. L. Bierman (Eds.). Aggression, Antisocial Behavior, and Violence Among Girls (pp. 223-241). New York: Guildford Press. (A review chapter which reports on data obtained from Oregon Youth Study and Couples Study. Authors conclude that "Young women were observed to initiate physical aggression toward their partners more frequently than were the young men." And "the relative prevalence of frequent physical aggression by women and of injury and fear for men was surprisingly high.")
Capaldi, D. M., Kim, H. K., & Shortt, J. W. (2007). Observed initiation and reciprocity of physical aggression in young at-risk couples. Journal of Family Therapy, 22 (2) 101-111. (A longitudinal study using subjects from the Oregon Youth and Couples Study. Subjects were assessed 4 times across a 9 year period from late adolescence to mid-20's. Findings reseal that young women's rate of initiation of physical violence was "two times higher than men's during late adolescence and young adulthood." By mid-20's the rate of initiation was about equal. Mutual aggression increased the likelihood of injury for both men and women.)
Capaldi, D. M. & Owen, L. D. (2001). Physical aggression in a community sample of at-risk young couples: Gender comparisons for high frequency, injury, and fear. Journal of Family Psychology, 15 (3), 425-440. Drawn from a community based at-risk sample, 159 young couples were assessed with the Conflict Tactics scale and measures of self reported injuries. Findings indicated that 9.4% of men and 13.2% of women perpetrated frequent physical aggression toward their partners. Contrary to expectations, 13% of men and 9% of women, indicated that they were physically injured at least once. Authors report "2% of the men and none of the women indicate that they had been hurt by their partners between five and nine times."
Carlson, B. E. (1987). Dating violence: a research review and comparison with spouse abuse. Social Casework, 68, 16-23. (Reviews research on dating violence and finds that men and women are equally likely to aggress against their partners and that "the frequency of aggressive acts is inversely related to the likelihood of their causing physical injury.")
Carney, M., Buttell, F., & Dutton, D. (in press). Women who perpetrate intimate partner violence: A review of the literature with recommendations for treatment. Aggression and Violent Behavior. (An excellent review of the literature on women who perpetrate violence in intimate relationships. Also summarizes intervention programs for such women.)
Carrado, M., George, M. J., Loxam, E., Jones, L., & Templar, D. (1996). Aggression in British heterosexual relationships: a descriptive analysis. Aggressive Behavior, 22, 401-415. (In a representative sample of British men and women it was found, using a modified version of the CTS, that 18% of the men and 13% of the women reported being victims of physical violence at some point in their heterosexual relationships. With regard to current relationships, 11% of men and 5% of women reported being victims of partner aggression.)
Cascardi, M., Avery-Leaf, S., O'Leary, K. D., & Slep, A. M. S. (1999). Factor Structure and convergent validity of the Conflict Tactics Scale in high school students. Psychological Assessment, 11, 546-555. (A sample of 2320 high school students <1,180> from seven high schools in Long Island, New York were assessed with a modified CTS. A significantly greater number of women <37.8%> compared to <22.5%> men reported perpetrating physical aggression toward their dating partners. Of specific note 18.1% of women compared to 4.3% of men reported slapping their partners and 16.9% of women compared to 5.5% of men reported "kicking, biting or hitting" their partners.)
Cascardi, M., Langhinrichsen, J., & Vivian, D. (1992). Marital aggression: Impact, injury, and health correlates for husbands and wives. Archives of Internal Medicine, 152, 1178-1184. (Examined 93 couples seeking marital therapy. Found using the CTS and other information that 71% reported at least one incident of physical aggression in past year. While men and women were equally likely to perpetrate violence, women reported more severe injuries. Half of the wives and two thirds of the husbands reported no injuries as a result of all aggression, but wives sustained more injuries as a result of mild aggression.)
Caulfield, M. B., & Riggs, D. S. (1992). The assessment of dating aggression: Empirical evaluation of the Conflict Tactics Scale. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 4, 549-558. (Used CTS with a sample of 667 unmarried college students <268> and found on a number of items significantly higher responses of physical violence on part of women. For example, 19% of women slapped their male partner while 7% of men slapped their partners, 13% of women kicked, bit, or hit their partners with a fist while only 3.1% of men engaged in this activity.)
Cercone, J. J., Beach, S. R. H., & Arias, I. (2005). Gender Symmetry in Dating Intimate Partner Violence: Does Behavior Imply Similar Constructs? Violence and Victims, 20 (2) 207-218. (A sample of 414 college students <189> responded to the CTS2. Results reveal that male and female subjects were equally likely to be perpetrators of minor violence in intimate dating relationships, but women were twice as likely as men to perpetrate severe violence <15.11%>).
Chermack, St. T., Walton, M. A., Fuller, B. E., & Blow, F. C. (2001). Correlates of expressed and received violence across relationship types among men and women substance abusers. Psychology of Addictive Behavior, 15, 140-151. (A sample of substance abusers <126> ranging in age from 17-83 completed a modified version of the CTS. Results reveal no differences in expressed or received partner violence for men and women.)
Clark, M. L., Beckett, J., Wells, M., & Dungee-Anderson, D. (1994). Courtship Violence among African-American college students. Journal of Black Psychology, 20 (3), 264-281. (A sample of 311 African-American college students 76 responded to the CTS. Findings reveal that 41% of men and 33% of women reported being physically abused by a dating partner.)
Claxton-Oldfield, S. & Arsenault, J. (1999). The initiation of physically aggressive behaviour by female university students toward their male partners: Prevalence and the reasons offered for such behaviors. Unpublished manuscript. (In a sample of 168 actively dating female undergraduates at a Canadian university, 26% indicated that they initiated physical aggression toward their male partners. Most common reason for such behavior was because partner was not listening to them.)
Cogan, R., & Ballinger III, B. C. (2006). Alcohol problems and the differentiation of partner, stranger, and general violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 21 (7), 924-935. (A sample of 457 college men and 958 college women completed the CTS. Results revealed that significantly more men than women <35.4%> reported being victimized by their partners.)
Coney, N. S., & Mackey, W. C. (1999). The feminization of domestic violence in America: The woozle effect goes beyond rhetoric. Journal of Men’s Studies, 8 (1), 45-58. (Authors review the domestic violence literature and report that while society in general as well as the media portray women as “recipients of domestic violence...epidemiological surveys on the distribution of violent behavior between adult partners suggest gender parity.”)
Cook, P. W. (1997). Abused men. The hidden side of domestic violence. Westport, CN.: Praeger. (Presents the evidence, empirical and personal, for male spousal victimization. Examines resistance to acceptance of findings and offers solutions to reduce domestic violence.)
Corry, C. E., Fiebert, M. S., & Pizzy, E. (2002). Controlling domestic violence against men. Available: www.familytx.org/research/Control_DV_against_men.pdf Earlier version presented at Sixth International Conference on Family Violence, San Diego, CA. (A critical examination of men as victims of partner violence.)
Cui, M., Lorenz, F. O., Conger, R. D., Melby, J. N., & Bryant, C. M. (2005). Observer, Self-, and partner reports of hostile behaviors in romantic relationships. Journal of Marriage and Family, 67, 1169-1181. (Examined a sample of 236 young people <48%> who completed questionnaires regarding their hostility toward their partners. Findings reveal that couples living together have higher levels of hostility than dating couples and that women in both conditions demonstrate higher levels of hostility towards their partners than men.)
Cunradi, C. B., Caetano, R., Clark, C. L., & Schafer, J. (1999). Alcohol-related problems and intimate partner violence among white, Black, and Hispanic couples in the U.S. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 23, 1492-1501. (A probability sample of 1440 couples <565> was obtained from the 1995 National Alcohol Survey. Subjects completed the Conflict Tactics Scale. Ethnicity results reveal that overall rates of partner aggression were similar for whites and Hispanic while Black rates were significantly higher. In terms of gender, white men and women had similar rates of partner aggression, Hispanic women were somewhat more aggressive than Hispanic men and Black men were more aggressive than Black women. Alcohol related problems were a predictor of intimate partner violence in Black couples.)
Deal, J. E., & Wampler, K. S. (1986). Dating violence: The primacy of previous experience. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 3, 457-471. (Of 410 university students <295> responding to CTS and other instruments, it was revealed that 47% experienced some violence in dating relationships. The majority of experiences were reciprocal. When not reciprocal men were three times more likely than women to report being victims. Violent experiences in previous relationships was the best predictor of violence in current relationships.)
DeKeseredy, W. S. & Schwartz, M. D. (1998). Woman abuse on campus. Results from the Canadian National survey. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. (A large sample <1,835> of Canadian college students completed the Conflict Tactics Scale. Results reveal that women report engaging in higher rates of violence than men. Specifically, 46.1% of women reported engaging in some physical violence in intimate relationship since leaving high school. With 38% employing "minor" violence and 19% employing "severe" violence.)
DeMaris, A. (1992). Male versus female initiation of aggression: The case of courtship violence. In E. C. Viano (Ed.), Intimate violence: interdisciplinary perspectives. (pp. 111-120). Bristol, PA: Taylor & Francis. (Examined a sample of 865 white and black college students with regard to the initiation of violence in their dating experience. Found that 218 subjects, 80 men and 138 women, had experienced or expressed violence in current or recent dating relationships. Results indicate that "when one partner could be said to be the usual initiator of violence, that partner was most often the women. This finding was the same for both black and white respondents.")
Dowd, L. (2001). Female Perpetrators of Partner Aggression: Relevant Issue and Treatment. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma, 5 (2), 73-104. (A review article examining female partner aggression with a focus on treatment issues.)
Dutton, D. G. (2006). Rethinking Domestic Violence. Vancouver: UBC Press. (A thoughtful and scholarly analysis of research and treatment in the area of Domestic Violence. Offers much insight, particularly to therapists and policy makers with regard to Intimate Partner Violence . Concludes that men are as likely as women to be victims and both suffer similar physical and psychological consequences of IPV.)
Dutton, D. G. (2007). Female intimate partner violence and developmental trajectories of abusive families. International Journal of Men's Health, 6, 54-71. (A review article which concludes that female violence towards intimate male partners is just as severe and has similar consequences as male violence towards women. However, most criminal justice interventions and custody evaluations assume that males are more likely to be IPV perpetrators.)
Dutton, D. G. & Nicholls, T. L. (2005). The gender paradigm in domestic violence research and theory: the conflict of theory and data. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 10, 680-714. (A review and analysis of the data regarding male victimization. Critical of feminist approaches that minimize female perpetration and trivialize male injury.)
Dutton, D. G. & Nicholls, T. L. (2005). The gender paradigm in domestic violence research and theory: the conflict of theory and data. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 10, 680-714. (A review and analysis of the data regarding male victimization. Critical of feminist approaches that minimize female perpetration and trivialize male injury.)
Dutton, D. G., Nicholls, T. L., & Spidel, A. (2005). Female perpetrators of intimate abuse. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 41, (4) 1-31. (A review article examining issues related to female abusers. Authors conclude, based on survey and epidemiological studies, that females are as abusive as males in intimate relationships. They note that this is "especially so for younger cohort samples followed longitudinally.")
Dutton-Greene, L. B., & Straus, M. A. (2005, July). The relationship between gender hostility and partner violence and injury. Paper presented at the 9th International Family Violence Research Conference, Portsmouth, NH. (Report of findings from international dating violence Study which collected data from over 11,000 <70%> college students from 50 universities in 21 countries. Subjects responded to the revised Conflict Tactics scale, gender hostility scales and injury scales. Findings reveal that women perpetrated greater partner violence than men, that women were more seriously injured than men and that hostility toward the opposite sex was significantly and similarly correlated with partner violence for men and women.)
Ehrensaft, M. K., Moffitt, T. E., & Caspi, A. (2004). Clinically abusive relationships in an unselected birth cohort: men's and women's participation and developmental antecedents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 113 (2), 258-270. (Assessed 980 individuals, ages 24-26, who were participants in longitudinal study in New Zealand. Subjects were examined with the CTS, the Partner Conflict Calendar, PCC, a measure of the consequences of abuse and a variety of personality and psychopathology scales. Findings reveal that 9% of the total sample, with an equal number of men and women, were victims of clinical abuse in their relationships with partners.)
Ellison, C. G., Barkowski, J. P., & Anderson, K. R. (1999). Are there religious variations in domestic violence? Journal of Family Issues, 20, 87-113. (Subjects were selected from the first wave of The National Survey of Families & Households and consisted of 2,420 women and 2,242 men. Self administered surveys revealed that females were significantly more likely than males to perpetrate violence toward their partners. Authors report that "regular attendance at religious services is inversely associated" with domestic violence for men and women.)
Ernst, A. A., Nick, T. G., Weiss, S. J., Houry, D., & Mills, T. (1997). Domestic violence in an inner-city ED. Annals of Emergency Medicine, 30, 190-197. (Assessed 516 patients <233> in a New Orleans inner-city emergency Department with the Index of Spousal Abuse, a scale to measure domestic violence. Found that 28% of the men and 33% of the women, were victims of past physical violence while 20% of the men and 19% of the women reported being current victims of physical violence. In terms of ethnicity, 82% of subjects were African-American. Authors report that there was a significant difference in the number of women vs. men who reported past abuse to the police ,19% of women, 6% of men.>)
Farrell, W. (1999). Women can’t hear what men don’t say. New York: Tarcher/Putnam. See Chapter 6. (Pp. 123-162; 323-329.) (An excellent social and political analysis of couple violence.)
Feather, N. T. (1996). Domestic violence, gender and perceptions of justice. Sex Roles, 35, 507-519. (Subjects <109> from Adelaide, South Australia, were presented a hypothetical scenario in which either a husband or wife perpetrated domestic violence. Participants were significantly more negative in their evaluation of the husband than the wife, were more sympathetic to the wife and believed that the husband deserved a harsher penalty for his behavior.)
Felson, R. B. (2002). Violence and Gender Reexamined. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. (Scholarly review and analysis of the literature. Author concludes that, "Women are just as likely as men to be victims of violence from their partners. . . ." Also "casts doubt on the battered wife syndrome as an explanation for why women kill their male partners.")
Felson, R. B. (2006). Is violence against women about women or about violence? Contexts, 5, 21-25. (Reports that while men are eight times more likely to commit overall violence than women, there is gender parity in partner violence. Author suggests that violent men are "less likely to assault their partners because of the chivalry norm.")
Felson, R. B. (in press). The legal consequences of intimate partner violence for men and women. Children and Youth Services Review. (Author reports that evidence suggests that violent husbands are not treated more leniently than other violent offenders. Evidence also suggests that male victims of partner violence are dissatisfied with their treatment by the legal system. In the article author summarizes an unpublished study examining whether gender and marital status affect whether people think the police should be notified about a partner assault. In a telephone survey, 800 subjects responded to a scenario of an argument between a couple in which one strikes the other, bruising their arm. Results indicate that subjects were more likely <80%> to condemn men's assaults on women than women's assaults on men, even though injuries were identical.)
Felson, R. B., & Outlaw, M. (2007). The control motive and marital violence. Violence and Victims, 22, 387-407. (Study based on an analysis of data obtained through the National Violence Against Women Survey . Authors looked at 10,000 respondents out of 16,000 total sample who were currently married. Results reveal that adult women are just as controlling and jealous toward their male partners as the other way around. Also report that, "While controlling spouses in current marriages are more likely to act violently there is no evidence that this relationship is gendered.")
Felton, R. B., & Pare, P. (2005). The reporting of domestic violence and sexual assault by nonstrangers to the police. Journal of Marriage and Family, 67, 597-610. (Authors analyzed data from The National Violence Against Women Survey, and found that "male victims are particularly reluctant to report assaults by their female partners." Reasons for nonreporting include: fear of reprisal, thought that police could do nothing to help and charges would not be believed.)
Felton, R. B., & Pare, P. (2007). Does the criminal justice system treat domestic violence and sexual offenders leniently? Justice Quarterly, 24, 435-459. (Authors analyzed data from the National Violence Against Women Survey and conclude that "women who assault their male partners are particularly likely to avoid arrest.")
Fergusson, D. M., Horwood, L. J., & Ridder, E. M. (2005). Partner violence and mental health outcomes in a New Zealand birth cohort. Journal of Marriage and Family, 67, 1103-1119. (Examined extent of domestic violence experience and perpetration in a sample of 828 <437> young adults who were 25 years old. Subjects were part of a long term longitudinal study and were administered the CTS2. Results reveal that "there were more men exposed to severe domestic violence than women" and that mild and moderate rates were similar for men and women. Overall, 39.4% of women and 30.9% of men reported perpetration scores of 3 or higher. Authors report that men and women reported similar rates of injury <3.9%>. In terms of initiation of partner assaults, 34% of women and 12% of men reported initiating physical assaults.)
Fiebert, M. S., & Gonzalez, D. M. (1997). Women who initiate assaults: The reasons offered for such behavior. Psychological Reports, 80, 583-590. (A sample of 968 women, drawn primarily from college courses in the Southern California area, were surveyed regarding their initiation of physical assaults on their male partners. 29% of the women, n=285, revealed that they initiated assaults during the past five years. Women in their 20's were more likely to aggress than women aged 30 and above. In terms of reasons, women appear to aggress because they did not believe that their male victims would be injured or would retaliate. Women also claimed that they assaulted their male partners because they wished to engage their attention, particularly emotionally.)
Fiebert, M. S. (1996). College students' perception of men as victims of women's assaultive behavior. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 82, 49-50. (Three hundred seventy one college students <91> were surveyed regarding their knowledge and acceptance of the research finding regarding female assaultive behavior. The majority of subjects (63%) were unaware of the finding that women assault men as frequently as men assault women; a slightly higher percentage of women than men (39% vs 32%) indicated an awareness of this finding. With regard to accepting the validity of these findings a majority of subjects (65%) endorsed such a result with a slightly higher percentage of men (70% vs 64%)indicating their acceptance of this finding.)
Flynn, C. P. (1990). Relationship violence by women: issues and implications. Family Relations, 36, 295-299. (A review/analysis article that states, "researchers consistently have found that men and women in relationships, both marital and premarital engage in comparable amounts of violence." Author also writes, "Violence by women in intimate relationships has received little attention from policy makers, the public, and until recently, researchers...battered men and abusive women have receive 'selective inattention' by both the media and researchers.")
Follingstad, D. R., Wright, S., & Sebastian, J. A. (1991). Sex differences in motivations and effects in dating violence. Family Relations, 40, 51-57. (A sample of 495 college students <207> completed the CTS and other instruments including a "justification of relationship violence measure." The study found that women were twice as likely to report perpetrating dating violence as men. Female victims attributed male violence to a desire to gain control over them or to retaliate for being hit first, while men believed that female aggression was a based on their female partner's wish to "show how angry they were and to retaliate for feeling emotionally hurt or mistreated.")
Foo, L., & Margolin, G. (1995). A multivariate investigation of dating aggression. Journal of Family Violence, 10, 351-377. (A sample of 290 college students <111> responded to the CTS. Results reveal that 24.3% of men and 38.5% of women reported perpetrating physical violence toward their dating partners.)
Foshee, V. A. (1996). Gender differences in adolescent dating abuse prevalence, types and injuries. Health Education Research, 11 (3), 275-286. (Data collected from 1965 adolescents in eighth and ninth grade in 14 schools in rural North Carolina. Results reveal that 36.5% of dating females and 39.4% of dating males report being victims of physical dating violence. In terms of perpetrating violence 27.8% of females while only 15.0% of males report perpetrating violence.)
Gelles, R. J. (1994). Research and advocacy: Can one wear two hats? Family Process, 33, 93-95. (Laments the absence of objectivity on the part of "feminist" critics of research demonstrating female perpetrated domestic violence.)
George, M. J. (1994). Riding the donkey backwards: Men as the unacceptable victims of marital violence. Journal of Men's Studies, 3, 137-159. (A thorough review of the literature which examines findings and issues related to men as equal victims of partner abuse.)
George, M. J. (1999). A victimization survey of female perpetrated assaults in the United Kingdom. Aggressive Behavior, 25, 67-79. (A representative sample of 718 men and 737 women completed the CTS and reported their experience as victims of physical assaults by women during a five year period. Men reported greater victimization and more severe assaults than did women. Specifically, 14% of men compared to 7% of women reported being assaulted by women. Highest risk group were single men. The majority (55%) of assaults on men were perpetrated by spouses, partners, or former partners.)
George, M. J. (2002). Skimmington Revisited. Journal of Men's Studies, 10 (2), 111-127. (Examines historical sources and finds that men who were victims of spousal aggression were subject to punishment and humiliation. Inferences to contemporary trivialization of male victims of partner aggression is discussed.)
George, M. J. (2003). Invisible touch. Aggression & Violent Behaviour, 8, 23-60. (A comprehensive review and analysis of female initiated partner aggression. Historical, empirical and case evidence presented to demonstrate reality of "battered husband syndrome.")
George, M. J. (2007). The "great taboo" and the role of patriarchy in husband and wife abuse. International Journal of Men's Health, 6, 7-22. (A scholarly examination of key myths and taboos surrounding the concept of patriarchy. Emphasizes the point that IPV will be successfully combated only when male victimization is acknowledged and addressed by both men and women.)
Giordano, P. C., Millhollin, T. J., Cernkovich, S. A., Pugh, M. D., & Rudolph, J. L. (1999). Delinquency, identity, and women's involvement in relationship violence. Criminology, 37, 17-40. (Reports the responses of 721 young adults <45%> who had been involved in delinquent activities 10 years earlier. Subjects responded to a modified version of the CTS. Findings reveal that women were more likely to perpetrate violence than men. Specifically, 27.6% of women compared to 19.2% of men hit or threw at their partner and 8.3% of women compared to 0.4% of men threatened spouse or partner with a knife.)
Goldberg, W. G., & Tomlanovich, M. C. (1984). Domestic violence victims in the emergency department. JAMA, 251, 3259-3264. (A sample of 492 patients <275> who sought treatment in an emergency department in a Detroit hospital were survey regarding their experience with domestic violence. Respondents were mostly African-American (78%), city dwellers (90%), and unemployed (60%). Victims of domestic violence numbered 107 (22%). While results indicate that 38% of victims were men and 62% were women this gender difference did not reach statistical significance.
Gonzalez, D. M. (1997). Why females initiate violence: A study examining the reasons behind assaults on men. Unpublished master's thesis, California State University, Long Beach. (225 college women participated in a survey which examined their past history and their rationales for initiating aggression with male partners. Subjects also responded to 8 conflict scenarios which provided information regarding possible reasons for the initiation of aggression. Results indicate that 55% of the subjects admitted to initiating physical aggression toward their male partners at some point in their lives. The most common reason was that aggression was a spontaneous reaction to frustration).
Goodyear-Smith, F. A. & Laidlaw, T. M. (1999). Aggressive acts and assaults in intimate relationships: Towards an understanding of the literature. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 17, 285-304. (An up to date scholarly analysis of couple violence. Authors report that, “...studies clearly demonstrate that within the general population, women initiate and use violent behaviors against their partners at least as often as men.”
Graham, K., Plant, M., & Plant, M. (2004). Alcohol, gender and partner aggression: a general population study of British adults. Addiction Research and Theory, 12, 385-401. (A cross sectional sample of 2027 <1052> adults were interviewed regarding their experience with partner aggression. Results indicate that 16% of women reported physically aggressing their male partners within a two year period, while 13% of males reported physically aggressing their female partners.)
Graham-Kevan, N. (2007). Domestic violence: Research and implications for batterer programmes in Europe. European Journal of Criminal Policy & Research, 13, 213-225. (A review article in which author cites evidence which challenges traditional feminist conceptualizations of "domestic violence as unilateral male-to-female violence enacted to control and dominate women, supported by the patriarchal beliefs and systems of the wider society.")
Graham-Kevan, N., & Archer, J. (July, 2005). Using Johnson's domestic violence typology to classify men and women in a non-selected sample. Paper presented at the 9th Annual Family Violence Research Conference, Portsmouth, NH. (A total of 1339 subjects, students and staff from the University of Central Lancashire, responded to a modified version of the CTS. Authors report that, "the proportion of women and men using any act of physical aggression towards their partners was as follows: from self-reports 29% for women and 17% for men, and from partner reports 31% of women and 22% for men.")
Grandin, E. & Lupri, E. (1997). Intimate violence in Canada and the United States: A cross-national comparison. Journal of Family Violence, 12 (4), 417-443. (Authors examine data from the 1985 U.S. National Family Violence Resurvey and the 1986 Canadian National Family Life Survey. Report that "although the United States exhibits significantly higher rates of societal violence crime than Canada, Canadian women and men were more likely than their American counterparts to use severe and minor intimate violence." This finding is counter to the "culture of violence theory." Moreover, in both cultures the rates of violence of wives to husbands were higher than husbands to wives. Specifically, the overall violence index for men in America was 10.6 and in Canada it was 18.3; while the overall violence index for women in America was 12.2 and in Canada it was 25.3.)
Gray, H. M. & Foshee, V. (1997). Adolescent dating violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 12, 126-142. (A sample of 185 adolescents responded to a questionnaire about dating violence; 77 students reported being involved in physical violence in their current or most recent dating relationship. Mutual violence was present in 66% of cases; while 26% of males and 8% of females reported being victims of violence and 29% of females and 4% of males reported being sole perpetrators of violence.)
Gryl, F. E., Stith, S. M., & Bird, G. W. (1991). Close dating relationships among college students: differences by use of violence and by gender. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 8, 243-264. (A sample of 280 first year college students <156> at a mid-Atlantic university completed the violence sub-scale of the Conflict Tactics Scale. Results reveal that almost 30% of the females and 23% of males reported that they had been violent in the current relationship. Also almost 28% of women and 39% of men reported sustaining violence in their current relationship.)
Hamel, J. (2005). Gender Inclusive Treatment of Intimate Partner Abuse. New York: Springer. (Reviews the "most reliable and empirically sound research" and concludes that "men and women physically and emotionally abuse each other at equal rates. . ." Offers a comprehensive gender inclusive treatment approach to domestic violence.)
Hamel, J. (2007). Toward a gender-inclusive conception of intimate partner violence research and theory: Part 1-traditional perspectives. International Journal of Men's Health, 6, 36-54. (A review article which examines research in the area of Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) and finds that until recently the primary focus was on the physical and psychological abuse of women by their male partners. Concludes that the reluctance to objectively investigate the area is due to a "prevailing patriarchal conception of intimate partner violence.")
Hampton, R. L., Gelles, R. J., & Harrop, J. W. (1989). Is violence in families increasing? A comparison of 1975 and 1985 National Survey rates. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 51, 969-980. (Compared a sample of 147 African Americans from the 1975 National Survey with 576 African Americans from the 1985 National Survey with regard to spousal violence. Using the CTS found that the rate of overall violence (169/1000) of husbands to wives remained the same from 1975 to 1985, while the rate of overall violence for wives to husbands increased 33% (153 to 204/1000) from 1975 to 1985. The rate of severe violence of husbands to wives decreased 43% (113 to 64/1000) from 1975 to 1985, while the rate of severe violence of wives to husbands increased 42% (76 to 108/1000) from 1975 to 1985. In 1985 the rate of abusive violence by black women was nearly 3 times greater than the rate of white women.)
Harned, M. S. (2002). A multivariate analysis of risk markers for dating violence victimization. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 17, 1179-1197. (In a university sample of 874 daters <489> assessed with the revised CTS, 22% of women and 21% of men reported experiencing physical aggression from dating partners.)
Harders, R. J., Struckman-Johnson, C., Struckman-Johnson, D. & Caraway, S. J. (1998). Verbal and physical abuse in dating relationships. Paper presented at the meeting of American Psychological Association, San Francisco, CA. (Surveyed 274 college students <92> using a revised formed of the Conflict Tactics Scale. Found that women were significantly more physically aggressive than men, particularly in the areas of: pushing, slapping and punching.)
Headey, B., Scott, D., & de Vaus, D. (1999). Domestic violence in Australia: Are women and men equally violent? Data from the International Social Science Survey/ Australia 1996/97 was examined. A sample of 1643 subjects (804 men, 839 women) responded to questions about their experience with domestic violence in the past 12 months. Results reveal that 5.7% of men and 3.7% of women reported being victims of domestic assaults. With regard to injuries results reveal that women inflict serious injuries at least as frequently as men. For example 1.8% of men and 1.2% of women reported that their injuries required first aid, while 1.5% of men and 1.1% of women reported that their injuries needed treatment by a doctor or nurse.
Hendy, H. M., Weiner, K., Bakerofskie, J., Eggen, D., Gustitus, C., & McLeod, K. C. (2003). Comparison of six models for violent romantic relationships in college men and women. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 18, 645-665. (A sample of 608 students <164> were surveyed with the Conflict Tactics Scale. Results indicate that 16% of men and 26% of women report inflicting violence on their current romantic partner.)
Henton, J., Cate, R., Koval, J., Lloyd, S., & Christopher, S. (1983). Romance and violence in dating relationships. Journal of Family Issues, 4, 467-482. (Surveyed 644 high school students <351> and found that abuse occurred at a rate of 121 per 1000 and appeared to be reciprocal with both partners initiating violence at similar rates.)
Herrenkohl, T. I., Kosterman, R., Mason, W. A., & Hawkins, J. D. (2007). Victims and Violence, 22 (3), 259-274. (Subjects were drawn from a longitudinal study in Seattle, WA. At age 24, 644 subjects 51.6%
Hines, D. A. & Malley-Morrison, K. (2001). Psychological effects of partner abuse against men: a neglected research area. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 2, 75-85. (A review article that examines the issue of men as victims of partner abuse. Considers reasons why men would remain in an abusive relationship.)
Hines, D. A. & Saudino, K. J. (2003). Gender differences in psychological, physical, and sexual aggression among college students using the revised Conflict Tactics Scales. Violence and Victims, 18 (2), 197-217. (A sample of 481 college students <179> responded to the revised Conflict Tactics scale. Results indicate that 29% of men and 35% of women reported perpetrating physical aggression in their relationships.)
Hird, M. J. (2000). An empirical study of adolescent dating aggression in the U.K. Journal of Adolescence, 23, 69-78. (A sample of U.K. high school students <279> were assessed with a modified version of the CTS. Results indicate that 15% of males and 14% of females reported experiencing physical aggression from their dating partner within the past 12 months.)
Hoff, B. H. (1999). The risk of serious physical injury from assault by a woman intimate. A re-examination of National Violence against women survey data on type of assault by an intimate. WWW.vix.com/menmag/nvawrisk.htm. (A re-examination of the data from the most recent National violence against women survey (Tjaden & Thoennes, 1998) shows that "assaulted men are more likely than assaulted women to experience serious attacks by being hit with an object, beat up, threatened with a knife or being knifed.")
Holtzworth-Munroe, A. (2005). Female Perpetration of Physical Aggression Against an Intimate Partner: A Controversial New Topic of Study. Violence and Victims, 20 (2), 251-259. (Examines the changing zeitgeist, methodological issues, and research findings regarding female perpetrated violence.)
Jackson, S. M., Cram, F. & Seymour, F. W. (2000). Violence and sexual coercion in high school students' dating relationships. Journal of Family Violence, 15, 23-36. (In a New Zealand sample of senior high school students <200> 21% of women and 19% of men reported having been physically hurt by their heterosexual dating partner.)
Jenkins, S. S., & Aube, J. (2002). Gender differences and gender-related constructs in dating aggression. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 1106-1118. (Used the CTS with a university sample of 85 dating couples. Authors report that, "women in existing college dating relationships are more aggressive than men.")
Jezl, D. R., Molidor, C. E., & Wright, T. L. (1996). Physical, sexual, and psychological abuse in high school dating relationships: Prevalence rates and self-esteem issues. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 13 (1), 69-87. (Examined an ethnically diverse sample of currently dating subjects <114> who responded to a modified version of the Conflict Tactics Scale. Results indicate that 50.9% of subjects <63%> reported being victims of moderately abusive behaviors such as "being kicked, slapped, having your hair pulled, and being intentionally scratched.")
Jouriles, E. N., & O'leary, K. D. (1985). Interpersonal reliability of reports of marital violence. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 53, 419-421. (Used the Conflict Tactics Scale with a sample of 65 couples in marriage therapy and 37 couples from the community. Found moderate levels of agreement of abuse between partners and similar rates of reported violence between partners.)
Kalmuss, D. (1984). The intergenerational transmission of marital aggression. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 46, 11-19. (In a representative sample of 2,143 adults found that the rate of husband to wife severe aggression is 3.8% while the rate of wife to husband severe aggression is 4.6%.)
Katz, J., Carino, A., & Hilton, A. (2002). Perceived verbal conflict behaviors associated with physical aggression and sexual coercion in dating relationships: a gender-sensitive analysis. Violence & Victims, 17, 93-109. (A sample of 223 <115> heterosexual dating undergraduates completed the CTS2. Results indicate that there were no differences for men and women in the perpetration of physical aggression toward partners.)
Katz, J., Kuffel, S. W., & Coblentz, A. (2002). Are there gender differences in sustaining dating violence? An examination of frequency, severity, and relationship satisfaction. Journal of Family Violence, 17, 247-271. (Authors report two studies where dating men and women experienced violence at comparable levels, "although men experienced more frequent moderate violence." In the first study n=286, <183> 55% of women had nonviolent partners, while 50% of men had nonviolent partners; in the second study n=123 <78> 73% of women had nonviolent partners, while 58% of men had nonviolent partners.)
Kaura, S. A. & Allan, C. M. (2004). Dissatisfaction with relationship power and dating violence perpetration by men and women. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 19, 576-588. (A university sample of 352 men and 296 women completed the revised Conflict Tactics Scale. Authors report, "Surprisingly, significantly more dating violence perpetration is reported by women than by men." Also found that "male perpetration of dating violence is related to mother's violence, whereas female perpetration of dating violence is related to father's violence.")
Kelly, L. (2003). Disabusing the definition of domestic abuse: how women batter men and the role of the feminist state. Florida State Law Review, 30, 791-855. (A scholarly examination of the issue of male victimization which is critical of feminist perspectives.)
Kessler, R. C., Molnar, B. E., Feurer, I. D., & Appelbaum, M. (2001). Patterns and mental health predictors of domestic violence in the United States. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 24, 487-507. (A sample of 3537 subjects <1738> were drawn from the National Co-morbidity Survey, a nationally representative survey conducted between 1990 and 1992. Subjects were married or cohabitating men and women between the ages of 15-54 who were assessed using the CTS. Results indicated that, "17.4% of women and 18.4% of men reported that they were victims of minor physical violence perpetrated by their current spouses or partners.")
Kim, K., & Cho, Y. (1992). Epidemiological survey of spousal abuse in Korea. In E. C. Viano (Ed.) Intimate Violence: Interdisciplinary Perspectives. (pp. 277-282). Bristol, PA: Taylor and Francis. (Utilized the Conflict Tactics scale in interviews with a random sample of 1,316 married Koreans <707>. Compared to findings with American couples, results indicate that Korean men were victimized by their wives twice as much as American men, while Korean women were victimized by their spouses three times as much as American women.)
Kim, J-Y., & Emery, C. (2003). Marital power, conflict, norm consensus, and marital violence in a nationally representative sample of Korean couples. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 18, 197-219. (A sample of 1500 South Koreans were surveyed. Marital power, conflict and norm consensus were correlated with marital violence. Findings reveal that the incidence of husband to wife violence 27.8%, while wife to husband was 15.8%)
Kirschner, M., & Fiebert, M. (2008, April). Interracial dating and partner abuse: A pilot study. Poster session presented at the annual meeting of Western Psychological Association, Irvine, CA. (A convenience sample of 40 subjects, 15 men, 25 women who were currently involved in an interracial relationship were evaluated using the CTS2. No relationship between partner aggression and ethnicity was found. However, women were significantly more likely to perpetrate violence toward their male partners then men were toward women.)
Kwong, M. J., Bartholomew, K., & Dutton, D. (1999). Gender differences in patterns of relationship violence in Alberta. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 31 (3), 150-160. (A representative sample of men and women from Alberta using the Conflict Tactics Scale, reported on their experience of marital aggression during a one year period. Similar levels of reported perpetration of physical violence were found, viz., husband to wife 12.9%, wife to husband, 12.3%.)
Lane, K., & Gwartney-Gibbs, P.A. (1985). Violence in the context of dating and sex. Journal of Family Issues, 6, 45-49. (Surveyed 325 students <165> regarding courtship violence. Used Conflict Tactics Scale and found equal rates of violence for men and women.)
Laner, M. R., & Thompson, J. (1982). Abuse and aggression in courting couples. Deviant Behavior, 3, 229-244. (Used Conflict Tactics Scales with a sample of 371 single individuals <129> and found similar rates of male and female violence in dating relationships.)
Langhinrichsen-Rohling, J. (2005). Top 10 greatest hits. Important findings and future directions for intimate partner violence research. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20, 108-118. (Author spells out her choices of the 10 most important recent findings in the field of intimate partner violence. Specifically states, "data indicate that women's perpetuation of violence is surprisingly frequent, perhaps more so than men's. . . .")
Langhinrichsen-Rohling, J., & Vivian, D. (1994). The correlates of spouses' incongruent reports of marital aggression. Journal of Family Violence, 9, 265-283. (In a clinic sample of 97 couples seeking marital therapy, authors found, using a modified version of the CTS, that 61% of the husbands and 64% of the wives were classified as aggressive, 25% of the husbands and 11% of the wives were identified as mildly aggressive and 36% of husbands and 53% of wives were classified as severely aggressive. Sixty-eight percent of couples were in agreement with regard to husband's overall level of aggression and 69% of couples were in agreement on wive's overall level of aggression. Aggression levels were identified as "nonviolent, mildly violent, or severely violent." Where there was disagreement, 65% of husbands were under-reporting aggression and 35% of husbands were over-reporting aggression; while 57% of wives were under-reporting aggression and 43% of wives were over-reporting aggression.)
Laroche, D. (2005). Aspects of the context and consequences of domestic violence-Situational couple violence and intimate terrorism in Canada in 1999. Table 8. Quebec City: Government of Quebec. (Author presents a reanalysis of Canadian General Social Survey and reports great similarity in male and female victimization. Specifically, 83% of men and 77% of women feared for their lives because they were unilaterally terrorized by their partners. A similar percentage <84%> of men and women who were terrorized by their partners received medical attention. Reports 8% of women and 7% of men report being physically abused within last 5 years.)
Leisring, P. A., Dowd, L., & Rosenbaum, A. (2003). Treatment of Partner Aggressive Women. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma, 7 (1/2), 257-277. (Article discusses information regarding gender parity in partner aggression. Authors provide a rationale for the study of female offenders and describe characteristics of partner aggressive women. Included is a presentation of the treatment program for partner aggressive women at University of Massachusetts medical school.)
LeJeune, C., & Follette, V. (1994). Taking Responsibility. Sex Differences in reporting dating violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 9, 133-140. (A sample of 465 college students <58.3%> responded to a mailed survey of CTS items. Results reveal that 42.4% of female respondents report that they "usually initiate violent acts in their relationship" compared to 14.3% of male respondents who report "that they usually initiate violence." Females also report that 39.4% of their male partners initiate violence while 52.4% of males report that violence is initiated by their female partners. Authors speculate that this discrepancy suggests that "females are more likely than males to accept responsibility for initiating violence.")
Lewis, A. & Sarantakos, S. (2001). Domestic Violence and the male victim. Nuance, #3. (Based on interviews with 48 men in Australia and New Zealand, authors present findings that domestic violence by women toward men exists, that the refusal to examine the prevalence of this abuse is a "disempowerment" of men and that official policy should be changed to provide help for abused men.)
Lewis, S. F., & Fremouw, W. (2001). Dating violence: A critical review of the literature. Clinical Psychology Review, 21, 105-127. (Authors examine the literature and state that, "there is ample evidence that females initiate more violence than males." Discusses explanations for these findings as well as "deficits in the present body of literature including sampling methods, dependent measures and data analyses.")
Lillja, C. M. (1995). Why women abuse: A study examining the function of abused men. Unpublished master's thesis, California State University, Long Beach. (A review of the literature examining the issue of men as victims of female assaults. Includes an original questionnaire to test assumption that women who lack social support to combat stress are likely to commit domestic violence.)
Lo, W. A., & Sporakowski, M. J. (1989). The continuation of violent dating relationships among college students. Journal of College Student Development, 30, 432-439. (A sample of 422 college students completed the Conflict Tactics Scale. Found that, "women were more likely than men to claim themselves as abusers and were less likely to claim themselves as victims.")
Lottes, I. L., & Weinberg, M. S. (1996). Sexual coercion among university students: a comparison of the United States and Sweden. Journal of Sex Research, 34, 67-76. (A sample of 507 Swedish students <211> and 407 U.S. students <129> responded to items on the CTS. Results reveal that 31% of U.S. men compared to 18% of Swedish men reported being victims of physical violence by female partners during the previous 12 months. While 31% of U.S. women comparted to 19% of Swedish women reported being victims of physical violence by male partners during the previous 12 months.)
Macchietto, J. (1992). Aspects of male victimization and female aggression: Implications for counseling men. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 14, 375-392. (Article reviews literature on male victimization and female aggression.)
Magdol, L., Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Fagan, J., Newman, D. L., & Silva, P. A. (1997). Gender differences in partner violence in a birth cohort of 21 year Olds: bridging the gap between clinical and epidemiological approaches. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65, 68-78. (Used CTS with a sample of 861 21 year Olds <436> in New Zealand. Physical violence perpetration was reported during the previous 12 months by 37.2% of women and 21.8% of men, with severe violence perpetration by women at 18.6% and men at 5.7%.)
Makepeace, J. M. (1986). Gender differences in courtship violence victimization. Family Relations, 35, 383-388. (A sample of 2,338 students <1,059> from seven colleges were surveyed regarding their experience of dating violence. Courtship violence was experienced by 16.7 % of respondents. Authors report that "rates of commission of acts and initiation of violence were similar across gender." In term of injury, both men (98%) and women (92%) reported "none or mild" effects of violence.)
Malik, S., Sorenson, S. B., & Aneshensel, C. S. (1997). Community and dating violence among adolescents: perpetration and victimization. Journal of Adolescent Health, 21, 291-302. (A sample of 707 high school students <281> responded to the CTS. Results reveal that girls were almost 3 times more likely than boys to perpetrate dating violence. In terms of ethnicity, African-Americans had the highest level of dating violence, followed by Latinos, whites, and Asian Americans.)
Mallory, K. A., McCloskey, K. A., Griggsby, N., & Gardner, D. (2003). Women's use of violence within intimate relationships. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 6 (2), 37-59. (Reviews research which examines women's use of violence in intimate relationships. Reports a number of studies which document the increased arrests of women in domestic disputes.)
Malone, J., Tyree, A., & O'Leary, K. D. (1989). Generalization and containment: Different effects of past aggression for wives and husbands. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 51, 687-697. (In a sample of 328 couples it was found that men and women engaged in similar amounts of physical aggression within their families of origin and against their spouses. However, results indicate that women were more aggressive to their partners than men. Aggression was more predictable for women, i.e., if women observed parental aggression or hit siblings they were more likely to be violent with their spouses.)
Margolin, G. (1987). The multiple forms of aggressiveness between marital partners: how do we identify them? Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 13 , 77-84. (A paid volunteer sample of 103 couples completed the Conflict Tactics Scale. It was found that husbands and wives perpetrated similar amounts of violence. Specifically, the incidence of violence, as reported by either spouse was: husband to wife =39; wife to husband =41.)
Marshall, L. L., & Rose, P. (1987). Gender, stress and violence in the adult relationships of a sample of college students. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 4, 299-316. (A survey of 308 undergraduates <152> revealed that 52% expressed and 62% received violence at some point in their adult relationships. Overall, women report expressing more physical violence than men. Childhood abuse emerged as a predictor of violence in adult relationships.)
Marshall, L. L., & Rose, P. (1990). Premarital violence: The impact of family of origin violence, stress and reciprocity. Violence and Victims, 5, 51-64. (454 premarital undergraduates <249> completed the CTS and other scales. Overall, women reported expressing more violence than men, while men reported receiving more violence than women. Female violence was also associated with having been abused as children.)
Mason, A., & Blankenship, V. (1987). Power and affiliation motivation, stress and abuse in intimate relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 203-210. (Investigated 155 college students 48 with the Thematic Apperception Test , Life Experiences Survey and the CTS. Found that there were no significant gender differences in terms of the infliction of physical abuse. Men with high power needs were more likely to be physically abusive while highly stressed women with high needs for affiliation and low activity inhibition were the most likely to be physically abusive. Results indicate that physical abuse occurred most often among committed couples.)
Matthews, W. J. (1984). Violence in college couples. College Student Journal, 18, 150-158. (A survey of 351 college students <123> revealed that 79 <22.8> reported at least one incident of dating violence. Both men and women ascribed joint responsibility for violent behavior and both sexes, as either recipients or expressors of aggression, interpreted violence as a form of "love.")
Maxfield, M. G. (1989). Circumstances in supplementary homicide reports: Variety and validity. Criminology, 27, 671-695. (Examines FBI homicide data from 1976 through 1985. Reports that 9,822 wives & common law wives <57%> were killed compared to 7,433 husbands and common law husbands <43%>).
McCarthy, A. (2001.) Gender differences in the incidences of, motives for, and consequences of, dating violence among college students. Unpublished Master's thesis, California State University, Long Beach. (In a sample of 1145 students <359> found that 36% of men and 28% of women responding to the CTS2 reported that they were victims of physical aggression during the previous year. There were no differences in reported motives for aggression between men and women.)
McKinney, K. (1986). Measures of verbal, physical and sexual dating violence by gender. Free Inquiry in Creative Sociology, 14, 55-60. (Surveyed 163 college students, 78 men, 85 women, with a questionnaire designed to assess involvement in dating abuse. Found that 38% of women and 47% of men indicated that they were victims of physical abuse in dating relationships. Also found that 26% of women and 21% of men acknowledged that they physically assaulted their dating partners.)
McLeod, M. (1984). Women against men: An examination of domestic violence based on an analysis of official data and national victimization data. Justice Quarterly, 1, 171-193. (From a data set of 6,200 cases of spousal abuse in the Detroit area in 1978-79 found that men used weapons 25% of the time while female assailants used weapons 86% of the time, 74% of men sustained injury and of these 84% required medical care. Concludes that male victims are injured more often and more seriously than female victims.)
McNeely, R. L., Cook, P. W. & Torres, J. B. (2001). Is domestic violence a gender issue or a human issue? Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 4 (4), 227-251. (Argues that domestic violence is a human issue and not a gender issue. Presents and discusses empirical findings and case studies to support this view. Expresses concerns about men's "legal and social defenselessness.")
McNeely, R. L., & Mann, C. R. (1990). Domestic violence is a human issue. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 5, 129-132. (A review article which discusses the findings that women are more prone than men to engage in severely violent acts and that "classifying spousal violence as a women's issue rather than a human issue is erroneous.")
McNeely, R. L., & Robinson-Simpson, G. (1987). The truth about domestic violence: A falsely framed issue. Social Work, 32, 485-490. (A review article which concludes that women are as violent as men in domestic relationships.)
Mechem, C. C., Shofer, F. S., Reinhard, S. S., Hornig, S., & Datner, E. (1999). History of domestic violence among male patients presenting to an urban emergency department. Academic Emergency Medicine, 6, 786-791. (Data was collected over a 13 week period at an emergency clinic in Philadelphia which focused on injuries to male patients. Results revealed that 12.6% of 866 men were victims of domestic violence. Authors cite published findings that 14.4% of women treated in Emergency departments had been physically or sexually abused by an intimate partner. Compared to non-victims, victims were more likely to be single <52%>, younger <7.5> and African-American <61%>. In terms of assaults, 48% of men reported being kicked, bitten, chocked or punched by a female partner, while 37% of men reported having a weapon used against them.)
Mercy, J. A., & Saltzman, L. E. (1989). Fatal violence among spouses in the United States, 1975-85. American Journal of Public Health, 79, 595-599. (Examined FBI figures regarding spousal homicides. During the 10 year period from 1975 to 1985 found higher murder rates of wives than husbands 43.4%. Black husbands were at the greatest risk of victimization. Spousal homicide among blacks was 8.4 times higher than that of whites. Spouse homicide rates were 7.7 times higher in interracial marriages and the risk of victimization for both whites and blacks increased as age differences between spouses increased. Wives and husbands were equally likely to be killed by firearms while husbands were more likely to be stabbed and wives more likely to bludgeoned to death. Arguments apparently escalated to murder in 67% of spouse homicides.)
Meredith, W. H., Abbot, D. A., & Adams, S. L. (1986). Family violence in relation to marital and parental satisfaction and family strengths. Journal of Family Violence, 1, 299-305. (Authors report that 6% of men and 5% of women in Nebraska indicated that they used severe violence at least once in the previous year.)
Merrill, L. L., King, L. K., Milner, J. S., Newell, C. E., & Koss, M. P. (1998). Premilitary intimate partner conflict resolution in a Navy basic trainee sample. Military Psychology, 10, 1-15. (A sample of 2, 987 ,1,560 women, 1,427 men> Navy basic trainees responded to the CTS. More men <43.3%> than women <40.3%> reported receiving physical violence from an intimate partner, and more women <46.9%> than men <31.9%> reported at least one instance of inflicting physical violence on an intimate partner.)
Migliaccio, T. A. (2002). Abused husbands: A Narrative analysis. Journal of Family Issues, 23, 26-52. (Narratives of 12 abused men are examined. Study finds that the accounts of battered men and women follow similar patterns, "including the structure of the relationships, acceptance of the abuse, and the social context of the situation.")
Mihalic, S. W., & Elliot, D. (1997). A social learning theory model of marital violence. Journal of Family Violence, 12, 21-46. (Based on data from the National Youth Survey a social learning model of marital violence for men and women was tested. For men ethnicity, prior victimization, stress and marital satisfaction predicted both perpetration and experience of minor violence. With regard to serious violence ethnicity, prior victimization, marital satisfaction predicted men's experience of marital violence, while ethnicity, class and sex role attitudes predicted the perpetration of male marital violence. For women the most important predictor of the experience of both minor and serious marital violence was marital satisfaction, class was also a predictor. With regard to female perpetrators of marital violence the witnessing of parental violence was an important predictor along with class and marital satisfaction. The social learning model worked better for women than men.)
Milardo, R. M. (1998). Gender asymmetry in common couple violence. Personal Relationships, 5, 423-438. (A sample of 180 college students <88> were asked whether they would be likely to hit their partner in a number of situations common to a dating relationship. Results reveal that 83% of the women, compared to 53% of the men, indicated that they would be somewhat likely to hit their partner.)
Mirrlees-Black, C. (1999). Findings from a new British Crime Survey self-completion questionnaire. Home Office Research, Development and Statistics Directorate report 191. Home Office. London, HMSO. (In 1996, 16,000 completed questionnaires regarding crime victimization. Findings reveal 4.2% of men and 4.2% of women between the ages of 16-59 reported being physically assaulted by a current or former partner within the past year.)
Moffitt, T. E., Robins, R. W., & Caspi, A. (2001). A couples analysis of partner abuse with implications for abuse-prevention policy. Criminology & Public Policy, 1 (1), 5-36. (A representative longitudinal sample of 360 young-adult couples in New Zealand completed a 13 item physical abuse scale. Results reveal that 40% of males and 50% of females had perpetrated at least one act of physical violence toward their partners.)
Molidor, C., & Tolman, R. M. (1998). Gender and contextual factors in adolescent dating violence. Violence against Women, 4 (2), 180-194. (Subjects were 635 high school students 305 who completed a modified version of the CTS. Results indicate that there was no significant difference between males and females in their experience of overall dating violence 37.1%
Monson, C. M., & Langhinrichsen-Rohling, J. (2002). Sexual and nonsexual dating violence perpetration: testing an integrated perpetrator typology. Violence and Victims, 17, 403-428. (A sample of 228 men and 442 women were assessed with a modified version of the CTS2. Results reveal 27% of men and 37% of women reported perpetrating physical violence on their partners.)
Morse, B. J. (1995). Beyond the Conflict Tactics Scale: Assessing gender differences in partner violence. Violence and Victims, 10 (4), 251-272. (Data was analyzed from the National Youth Survey, a longitudinal study begun in 1976 with 1,725 subjects who were drawn from a probability sample of households in the United States and who, in 1976, were between the ages of 11-17. This study focused on violence as assessed by the CTS between male and female married or cohabiting respondents during survey years 1983 , 1986 , 1989 , and 1992 . For each survey year the prevalence rates of any violence and severe violence were significantly higher for female to male than for male to female. For example, in 1983 the rate of any violence male to female was 36.7, while the rate of any violence female to male was 48; in 1986, the rate of severe violence male to female was 9.5, while the rate of severe violence female to male was 22.8. In 1992, the rate of any violence male to female was 20.2, with a severe violence rate male to female of 5.7; while the rate of any violence female to male was 27.9, with a severe violence rate female to male of 13.8. Author notes that the decline in violence over time is attributed to the increase in age of the subjects. Results reveal that over twice as many women as men reported assaulting a partner who had not assaulted them during the study year." In 1986 about 20% of both men and women reported that assaults resulted in physical injuries. In other years women were more likely to self report personal injuries.)
Munoz-Rivas, M. J., Grana, J. L., O'Leary, K. D., & Gonzalez, M. P. (2007). Aggression in adolescent dating relationships: prevalence, justification, and health consequences. Journal of Adolescent Health, 40, 298-304. (A sample of 2416 high school students <1416> from 20 different schools in Madrid, Spain completed a modified CTS. Results reveal that significantly more women, 41.9% compared to 31.7% of men, admitted to perpetrating some form of physical aggression toward their dating partners. Women were significantly more likely to hit or kick <13.4%>, slap <12.4%> and shove or grab <22.5%> than men.)
Murphy, J. E. (1988). Date abuse and forced intercourse among college students. In G. P. Hotaling, D. Finkelhor, J. T. Kirkpatrick, & M. A. Straus (Eds.) Family Abuse and its Consequences: New Directions in Research (pp. 285-296). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. (A sample of 485 single college students <230> completed the CTS. Overall men reported greater victimization than women. For example, 20.7% of men compared to 12.8% of women reported being kicked, bit or hit with a fist and 6% of men compared to 3.6% of women reported being beaten up by their heterosexual partner.)
Mwamwenda, T. S. (1998). Reports of husband battering from an undergraduate sample in Umtata. Psychological Reports, 82, 517-518. (Surveyed a sample of 138 female and 81 male college students in Transkei, South Africa, regarding their witnessing husbanding battery. Responses reveal that 2% of subjects saw their mother beat their father, 18% saw or heard female relatives beating their husbands, and 26% saw or heard female neighbors beating their husbands.)
Niaz, U., Hassan, S., & Tariq, Q. (2002). Psychological consequences of intimate partner violence: forms of domestic abuse in both genders. Pakistan Journal of Medical Science, 18 (3), 205-214. (A sample of 140 <70> outpatient psychiatric patients in Pakistan were assessed with the Karachi Domestic Violence Screening Scale. Findings reveal that 19 men <27%> and 30 women <43%> reported being victims of physical abuse in their domestic relationships.)
Nicholls, T. L. & Dutton, D. G. (2001). Abuse committed by women against male intimates. Journal of Couples Therapy, 10 (1), 41-57. (A comprehensive review of the literature which concludes that "men are as likely as women to be victims of intimate assaults.")
Nisonoff, L. & Bitman, I. (1979). Spouse abuse: Incidence and relationship to selected demographic variables. Victimology, 4, 131-140. (In a sample of 297 telephone survey respondents <112> found that 15.5% of men and 11.3% of women report having hit their spouse, while 18.6% of men and 12.7% of women report having been hit by their spouse.)
O'Keefe, M. (1997). Predictors of dating violence among high school students. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 12, 546-568. (Surveyed 939 students <385> ranging in age from 14-20. Sample was ethnically diverse: 53% Latino, 20% White, 13% African-American, 6.7% Asian American, and 7% "other." A modified version of the violence subscale of the Conflict Tactics Scale was used to assess dating violence. Results reveal that 43% of females and 39% of males reported that they perpetrated some form of physical aggression on their dating partners.)
O'Keeffe, N. K., Brockopp, K., & Chew, E. (1986). Teen dating violence. Social Work, 31, 465-468. (Surveyed 256 high school students from Sacramento, CA., 135 girls, 121 boys, with the CTS. Ninety percent of students were juniors or seniors, the majority came from middle class homes, 94% were average or better students, and 65% were white and 35% were black, Hispanic or Asian. Found that 11.9% of girls compared to 7.4% of boys admitted to being sole perpetrators of physical violence. 17.8% of girls and 11.6% of boys admitted that they were both "victims and perpetrators" of physical violence.)
O'Leary, K. D., Barling, J., Arias, I., Rosenbaum, A., Malone, J., & Tyree, A. (1989). Prevalence and stability of physical aggression between spouses: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 57, 263-268. (272 couples were assessed regarding physical aggression. More women reported physically aggressing against their partners at premarriage <44%> and 18 months of marriage <36%>. At 30 months there was a nonsignificant but higher rate for women <32%>.)
O'Leary, K. D., Slep, A. M. S., Avery-Leaf, S., & Cascardi, M. (2008). Gender differences in dating aggression among multiethnic high school students. Journal of Adolescent Health, 42, 473-479. (A sample of 2363 students 1186 from 7 multiethnic high schools in New York were assessed with a modified Conflict Tactics Scale. The vast majority of subjects were between 15 and 18 years old and ethnicities included white, African-American, Hispanic and Asian. Results reveal that among those currently dating students 24% of males reported perpetrating physical aggression compared to 40% of females who reported perpetrating physical aggression. Similar rates of victimization and injury were reported by males and females. No differences in ethnicities were reported except for the finding that Asian males were less aggressive toward their dating partners.)
O'Leary, S. G., & Slep, A. M. S. (2006). Precipitants of Partner Aggression. Journal of Family Psychology, 20, 344-347. (A random sample of 453 couples, who were cohabiting and raising a child between the ages of 3-7, was assessed with the CTS2 and a scale to evaluate precipitants for Partner Aggression . Results reveal that women were more likely than men to perpetrate both mild <23.8%> and severe <8.4%> aggression. With regards to precipitation, the authors state that, "Men were more likely than women to report partner physical aggression as a precipitant for their own mild physical aggression." While the physical aggression of women was more likely to be precipitated by their partner's verbal aggression, authors go on to conclude, "These findings suggest that women may often be the first to escalate a conflict and use physical aggression.")
Pedersen, P. & Thomas, C. D. (1992). Prevalence and correlates of dating violence in a Canadian University sample. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 24, 490-501. (A sample of 166 undergraduates <116> responded to the CTS; 45.8% of subjects reported experiencing physical violence in their current or most recent dating relationship. Of this total, 44.8% of women and 48% of men reported being physically aggressed upon by their partners. It was also found that only 22% of men and 40.5% of women reported using physical aggression against a dating partner.)
Pekarek, C. (2008). Intimate partner violence and interracial relationships: Prevalence, perceived social support and gender. Unpublished master's thesis, California State University, Long Beach. Long Beach, CA. (A total of 203 subjects. <36> of various ethnicities responded to the CTS2. No differences in partner abuse were found as a function of ethnicity. Women were significantly more likely to perpetrate violence toward their male partners than were men toward women.)
Plass, M. S., & Gessner, J. C. (1983). Violence in courtship relations: a southern sample. Free Inquiry in Creative Sociology, 11, 198-202. (In an opportunity sample of 195 high school and college students from a large southern city, researchers used the Conflict Tactics scale to examine courtship violence. Overall, results reveal that women were significantly more likely than men to be aggressors. Specifically, in, committed relationships, women were three times as likely as men to slap their partners, and to kick, bit or hit with the fist seven times as often as men. In casual relationships, while the gender differences weren't as pronounced, women were more aggressive than men. Other findings reveal that high school students were more abusive than college students, and that a "higher proportion of black respondents were involved as aggressors.")
Prospero, M. (2007). Mental health symptoms among female and male victims of partner violence. American Journal of Men's Health, 1, 269-277. (An ethnically diverse sample <27%> of 573 college students <241> responded to the CTS2 and a mental healthy symptom questionnaire. Results reveal no differences between males and females on partner abuse. Author reports that "higher mental health problems were not related to whether the victim was female or male, but rather to the amount of partner violence that the victim experienced.")
Ridley, C. A., & Feldman, C. M. (2003). Female domestic violence toward male partners: Exploring conflict responses and outcomes. Journal of Family Violence, 18 (3), 157-170. (Participants were 153 female volunteers who completed the Abusive Behavior Inventory. Results reveal that 67.3% of participants reported at least one occurrence of perpetrating violent behavior in the past year. Most frequent behaviors included pushing, shoving, holding down <45.1%> and slapping, hitting, biting <41.2%>.)
Riggs, D. S., & O'Leary, K. D. (1996). Aggression between heterosexual dating partners. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 11, 519-540. (A sample of 345 college students <232> were assessed with the CTS. Results reveal similar overall rates of physical violence toward dating partners: 30% for men and 33.6% for women. However, authors report that 18.2% of women compared to 9.0% of men slapped their partners and 13.2% of women compared to 2.5% of men reported "kicking, biting or hitting" their partners.)
Riggs, D. S., O'Leary, K. D., & Breslin, F. C. (1990). Multiple correlates of physical aggression in dating couples. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 5, 61-73. (Used CTS and studied 408 college students <125>. Found that significantly more women <39%> than men <23%> reported engaging in physical aggression against their current partners.)
Rollins, B. C., & Oheneba-Sakyi, Y. (1990). Physical violence in Utah households. Journal of Family Violence, 5, 301-309. (In a random sample of 1,471 Utah households, using the Conflict Tactics Scale, it was found that women's rate of severe violence was 5.3% compared to a male rate of 3.4%.)
Rouse, L. P. (1988). Abuse in dating relationships: A comparison of Blacks, Whites, and Hispanics. Journal of College Student Development, 29, 312-319. (The use of physical force and its consequences were examined in a diverse sample of college students. Subjects consisted of 130 whites <58>, 64 Blacks <32>, and 34 Hispanics <24>. Men were significantly more likely than women to report that their partners used moderate physical force and caused a greater number of injuries requiring medical attention. This gender difference was present for Whites and Blacks but not for Hispanics.)
Rosenfeld, R. (1997). Changing relationships between men and women. A note on the decline in intimate partner violence. Homicide Studies, 1, 72-83. (Author reports on homicide rates in ST. Louis from 1968-1992. Findings indicate that while men and women were equally likely to be victims of partner violence in 1970, in subsequent years men, primarily black men, were more likely to be murdered by their intimate partners.)
Rouse, L. P., Breen, R., & Howell, M. (1988). Abuse in intimate relationships. A Comparison of married and dating college students. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 3, 414-429. (A sample of 130 married (48 men, 82 women) college students and 130 college students in dating relationships (58 men, 72 women) reported their experience of physical abuse in intimate relationships. Men were more likely to report being physically abused than women in both dating and marital relationships.)
Russell, R. J. H., & Hulson, B. (1992). Physical and psychological abuse of heterosexual partners. Personality and Individual Differences, 13, 457-473. (In a pilot study in Great Britain 46 couples responded to the Conflict Tactics Scale. Results reveal that husband to wife violence was: Overall violence= 25% and severe violence= 5.8%; while wife to husband violence was: Overall violence= 25% and severe violence=11.3%.)
Ryan, K. A. (1998). The relationship between courtship violence and sexual aggression in college students. Journal of Family Violence, 13, 377-394. (A sample of 656 college students <245> completed the CTS. Thirty four percent of the women and 40% of the men reported being victims of their partner's physical aggression.)
Sack, A. R., Keller, J. F., & Howard, R. D. (1982). Conflict tactics and violence in dating situations. International Journal of Sociology of the Family, 12, 89-100. (Used the CTS with a sample of 211 college students, 92 men, 119 women. Results indicate that there were no differences between men and women with regard to the expression of physical violence.)
Saenger, G. (1963). Male and female relations in the American comic strip. In D. M. White & R. H. Abel (Eds.), The funnies, an American idiom (pp. 219-231). Glencoe, NY: The Free Press. (Twenty consecutive editions of all comic strips in nine New York City newspapers in October, 1950 were examined. Results reveal that husbands were victims of aggression in 63% of conflict situations while wives were victims in 39% of situations. In addition, wives were more aggressive in 73% of domestic situations, in 10% of situations, husbands and wives were equally aggressive and in only 17% of situations were husbands more violent than wives.)
Sarantakos, S. (2004). Deconstructing self-defense in wife-to-husband violence. Journal of Men's Studies, 12 (3), 277-296. (Members of 68 families with violent wives in Australia were studied. In 78% of cases wives' violence was reported to be moderate to severe and in 38% of cases husbands needed medical attention. Using information from husbands, wives, children and wives' mothers study provides compelling data challenging self defense as a motive for female-to-male violence.)
Sarlar. S., Dsouza, R., Dasgupta, A., & Fiebert, M.S. (2008, April). Men as victims of domestic violence in India. Poster session presented at the annual meeting of the Western Psychological Association, Irvine, CA. (A convenience sample of married, middle class, men from all parts of India responded to modified version of the CTS. Findings reveal that 25.1% of subjects reported at least one incident, within the past year, of physical violence from their wives.
Schafer, J., Caetano, R., & Clark, C. L. (1998). Rates of intimate partner violence in the United States. American journal of Public Health, 88, 1702-1704. (Used modified CTS and examined reports of partner violence in a representative sample of 1635 married and cohabiting couples. Both partners reports were used to estimate the following lower and upper bound rates: 5.21% and 13.61% for male to female violence, and 6.22% and 18.21 % for female to male violence.)
Schumacher, J. A. & Leonard, K. E. (2005). Husbands' and wives' marital adjustment, verbal aggression, and physical aggression as longitudinal predictors of physical aggression in early marriage. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73, 28-37. (A sample of 634 newly married couples completed the revised CTS on 3 occasions over three years. The prevalence of wife to husband aggression was 48%, 45%, and 41%, while husband to wife aggression was 37%, 38%, and 37%.)
Schwartz, M., O'Leary, S. G., & Kendziora, K. T. (1997). Dating aggression among high school students. Violence and Victims, 12, 295-305. (A sample of 228 <122> high school students were assessed with the Conflict Tactics Scale as it related to the use of physical aggression during an argument with an opposite sex dating partner. Results indicate that 44% of females and only 16% of males reported engaging in at least one physically aggressive behavior during a disagreement. Authors speculate that culturally boys have inhibited their dating aggression, girls have become less intimidated by their dating partners than they once were. Authors cite research which shows that parents are more likely to punish boys than girls when they fight with their siblings.)
Sharpe, D., & Taylor, J. K. (1999). An examination of variables from a social-developmental model to explain physical and psychological dating violence. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 31:3, 165-175. (Canadian college students <110> were surveyed with the Conflict Tactics Scale regarding dating violence. Results reveal that 38% of men and 27% of women report receiving physical violence from their partners. Twice as many women compared to men reported inflicting violence without receiving physical violence from dating partners.)
Shook, N. J., Gerrity, D. A., Jurich, J. & Segrist, A. E. (2000). Courtship violence among college students: A comparison of verbally and physically abusive couples. Journal of Family Violence, 15, 1-22. (A modified Conflict Tactics Scale was administered to 572 college students <395>. Results reveal that significantly more women than men, 23.5% vs 13.0%, admitted using physical force against a dating partner.)
Sigelman, C. K., Berry, C. J., & Wiles, K. A. (1984). Violence in college students' dating relationships. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 5, 530-548. (Surveyed 504 college students <116> with the Conflict Tactics Scale and found that men and women were similar in the overall amount of violence they expressed but that men reported experiencing significantly more violence than women.)
Simonelli, C. J. & Ingram, K. M. (1998). Psychological distress among men experiencing physical and emotional abuse in heterosexual dating relationships. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 13, 667-681. (Responses from 70 male undergraduates to the CTS and a Psychological Maltreatment Inventory revealed that 40% reported being the target of some form of physical aggression from their female dating partners while only 23% reported expressing physical aggression to their partners. Men who were victims of emotional and physical abuse also reported greater levels of distress and depression.)
Simonelli, C. J., Mullis, T., Elliot, A. N., & Pierce, T. W. (2002). Abuse by siblings and subsequent experiences of violence within the dating relationship. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 17, 103-121. (A sample of 120 undergraduates <61> completed the CTS. Ten percent of men and 33% of women reported that they perpetrated at least one type of physical aggressive behavior against their dating partner and 18% of men and 15% of women reported receiving physical aggression from their dating partner.)
Sommer, R. (1994). Male and female partner abuse: Testing a diathesis-stress model. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada. (The study was in two waves: the first was from 1989-1990 and included a random sample of 452 married or cohabiting women and 447 married or cohabiting men from Winnipeg, Canada; the second was from 1991-1992 and included 368 women and 369 men all of whom participated in the first wave. Subjects completed the CTS & other assessment instruments. 39.1% of women reported being physically aggressive (16.2% reporting having perpetrated severe violence) at some point in their relationship with their male partner. While 26.3% of men reported being physically aggressive (with 7.6% reporting perpetrating severe violence) at some point in their relationship with their female partner. Among the perpetrators of partner abuse, 34.8% of men and 40.1% of women reported observing their mothers hitting their fathers. Results indicate that 21% of "males' and 13% of females' partners required medical attention as a result of a partner abuse incident." Results also indicate that "10% of women and 15% of men perpetrated partner abuse in self defense.")
Sommer, R., Barnes, G. E. & Murray, R. P. (1992). Alcohol consumption, alcohol abuse, personality and female perpetrated spouse abuse. Journal of Personality and Individual Differences, 13, 1315-1323. (The responses from a subsample of 452 women drawn from a sample of 1,257 Winnipeg residents were analyzed. Using the CTS, it was found that 39% of women physically aggressed against their male partners at some point in their relationship. Younger women with high scores on Eysenck's P scale were most likely to perpetrate violence. Note: The sample of subjects is the same as the one cited in Sommer's 1994 dissertation.)
Sorenson, S. B., & Telles, C. A. (1991). Self reports of spousal violence in a Mexican-American and non-Hispanic white population. Violence and Victims, 6, 3-15. (Surveyed 1,243 Mexican-Americans and 1,149 non-Hispanic whites and found that women compared to men reported higher rates of hitting, throwing objects, initiating violence, and striking first more than once. Gender difference was significant only for non-Hispanic whites.)
Sorenson, S. B., Upchurch, D. M., & Shen, H. (1996). Violence and injury in marital arguments: risk patterns and gender differences. American Journal of Public Health, 66 (1), 35-40. (Data analysis was based on findings from the National Survey of Families and Households conducted in 1987-88. Subjects included 6779 currently married White, Black and Hispanic individuals who completed a modified version of the Conflict Tactics Scale. Authors report that, "women <6.2%> were slightly more likely than men to report that they had hit, shoved or thrown something at their spouse in the previous year." Women also reported higher rates of causing injury than did men. Other findings of note: 1) Blacks were 1.58 times more likely and Hispanics 0.53 times less likely than Whites to report that physical violence occurred in their relationship; 2) Subjects under 30 reported more violence and those above 50 reported less violence; 3) lower annual income was associated with higher rates of physical violence.)
Spencer, G. A., & Bryant, S. A. (2000). Dating violence: A comparison of rural, suburban and urban teens. Journal of Adolescent Health, 25 (5), 302-305. (A sample of 2094 high school students in upper New York State indicated their experience of physical dating violence. There were a similar number of boys and girls surveyed, with more subjects from urban areas than rural or suburban areas. The majority of subjects were white non-Hispanic. Males in each region were more likely to report being victims of physical dating violence than females in each region. Specifically, 30% of rural boys and 20% of urban and 20% of suburban boys reported being victims of partner physical aggression while 25% of rural girls and 16% of suburban and 13% of urban girls reported victimization.)
Stacy, C. L., Schandel, L. M., Flannery, W. S., Conlon, M., & Milardo, R. M. (1994). It's not all moonlight and roses: dating violence at the University of Maine, 1982-1992. College Student Journal, 28, 2-9. (Three separate samples of students were assessed in 1982, 1987 and 1992 with the CTS. Authors report that the rate of partner abuse has more than doubled over a 10 year period. In 1992 the data collected from 53 men and 106 women revealed the overall rate of violence perpetrated by men was 20.8% while the rate perpetrated by women was 41.5%.)
Steinmetz, S. K. (1977-78). The battered husband syndrome. Victimology: An International Journal, 2, 499-509. (A pioneering article suggesting that the incidence of husband beating was similar to the incidence of wife beating.)
Steinmetz, S. K. (1980). Women and violence: victims and perpetrators. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 34, 334-350. (Examines the apparent contradiction in women's role as victim and perpetrator in domestic violence.)
Steinmetz, S. K. (1981). A cross cultural comparison of marital abuse. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, 8, 404-414. (Using a modified version of the CTS, examined marital violence in small samples from six societies: Finland, United States, Canada, Puerto Rico, Belize, and Israel . Found that "in each society the percentage of husbands who used violence was similar to the percentage of violent wives." The major exception was Puerto Rico where men were more violent. Author also reports that, "Wives who used violence... tended to use greater amounts.")
Stets, J. E. & Henderson, D. A. (1991). Contextual factors surrounding conflict resolution while dating: results from a national study. Family Relations, 40, 29-40. (Drawn from a random national telephone survey, daters between the ages of 18 and 30, who were single, never married and in a relationship during the past year which lasted at least two months with at least six dates were examined with the Conflict Tactics Scale. Findings reveal that over 30% of subjects used physical aggression in their relationships, with 22% of the men and 40% of the women reported using some form of physical aggression. Women were "6 times more likely than men to use severe aggression 19.2%...Men were twice as likely as women to report receiving severe aggression 15.7%." Also found that younger subjects and those of lower socioeconomic status were more likely to use physical aggression.)
Stets, J. E., & Pirog-Good, M. A. (1987). Violence in dating relationships, Social Psychology Quarterly, 50, 237-246. (Examined a college sample of 505 white students. Found that men and women were similar in both their use and reception of violence. Jealousy was a factor in explaining dating violence for women.)
Stets, J. E. & Pirog-Good, M. A. (1989). Patterns of physical and sexual abuse for men and women in dating relationships: A descriptive analysis, Journal of Family Violence, 4, 63-76. (Examined a sample of 287 college students <118> and found similar rates for men and women of low level physical abuse in dating relationships. More women than men were pushed or shoved <24%> while more men than women were slapped <12%>. In term of unwanted sexual contact 22% of men and 36% of women reported such behavior. The most frequent category for both men <18%> and women <19%> was the item, "against my will my partner initiated necking".)
Stets, J. E., & Pirog-Good, M. A. (1990). Journal of Personal and Social Relations, 7, 371-394. (A random sample of white heterosexual college students <335> were assessed with the CTS. Findings reveal that women compared to men perpetrated significantly more mild and severe aggression toward their dating partners and men compared to women sustained significantly more mild and severe aggression from their dating partners.)
Stets, J. E., & Straus, M. A. (1990). Gender differences in reporting marital violence and its medical and psychological consequences. In M. A. Straus & R. J. Gelles (Eds.), Physical violence in American families: Risk factors and adaptations to violence in 8,145 families (pp. 151-166). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction. (Reports information regarding the initiation of violence. In a sample of 297 men and 428 women, men said they struck the first blow in 43.7% of cases, and their partner hit first in 44.1% of cases and could not disentangle who hit first in remaining 12.2%. Women report hitting first in 52.7% of cases, their partners in 42.6% and could not disentangle who hit first in remaining 4.7%. Authors conclude that violence by women is not primarily defensive.)
Straus, M. (1980). Victims and aggressors in marital violence. American Behavioral Scientist, 23, 681-704. (Reviews data from the 1975 National Survey. Examined a subsample of 325 violent couples and found that in 49.5% of cases both husbands and wives committed at least one violent act, while husbands alone were violent in 27.7% of the cases and wives alone were violent in 22.7% of the cases. Found that 148 violent husbands had an average number of 7.1 aggressive acts per year while the 177 violent wives averaged 6.8 aggressive acts per year.)
Straus, M. A. (1995). Trends in cultural norms and rates of partner violence: An update to 1992. In S. M. Stich & M. A. Straus (Eds.) Understanding partner violence: Prevalence, causes, consequences, and solutions (pp. 30-33). Minneapolis, MN: National Council on Family Relations. (Reports finding that while the approval of a husband slapping his wife declined dramatically from 1968 to 1994 <21%> the approval of a wife slapping her husband did not decline but remained at 22% during the same period. The most frequently mentioned reason for slapping for both partners was sexual unfaithfulness. Also reports that severe physical assaults by men declined by 48% from 1975 to 1992--38/1000 to 19/1000 while severe assaults by women did not change from 1975 to 1992 and remained above 40/1000. Suggests that public service announcements should be directed at female perpetrated violence and that school based programs "explicitly recognize and condemn violence by girls as well as boys.")
Straus, M. A. (1998). The controversy over domestic violence by women: A methodological, theoretical, and sociology of science analysis. Paper presented at Claremont Symposium on Applied Social Psychology, Claremont, CA. (Examines issue of differential rates of assaults between crime studies and couple conflict studies. Provides a sociological explanation to account for assaults by women within the family.)
Straus, M. A. (2001). Prevalence of violence against dating partners by male and female university students worldwide. Violence Against Women, 10, 790-811. (Dating aggression was studied at 31 universities in 16 countries worldwide. Responding to the revised Conflict Tactics Scale were 8666 students <5919>. Results reveal that overall 25% of men and 28% of women assaulted their dating partner in the past year. At 21 of the 31 universities studied a larger percentage of women than men assaulted their dating partner. In terms of severe assaults a higher rate of perpetration by women occurred in a majority (18 of the 31) of the sites.)
Straus, M. A. (2005). Women's violence toward men is a serious social problem. In D. R. Loseke, R. J. Gelles, & M. M. Cavanaugh (Eds.), Current Controversies on Family Violence, 2nd Edition, (pp. 55-77). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. (A scholarly review of research showing that women initiate physical assaults on their male partners as frequently as men assault women. Examines the fact that injuries and fatalities result from such violence.)
Straus, M. A. (2006). Future research on gender symmetry in physical assaults on partners. Violence Against Women, 12, 1086-1097. (A review article and position statement in which author advocates a research focus on why gender symmetry in partner aggression is predominant and its implications for primary prevention and treatment. Suggests that such research is handicapped for a number of reasons including bias. Specifically cites concerns about some researchers who are blindly committed to a single causal theory-patriarchy & male dominance -- as well as "denial of research grants to projects that do not assume most partner violence is by male perpetrators." Authors also expresses concerns about "failure to investigate primary prevention & treatment for female offenders" and a suppression of evidence "of female perpetration by both researchers and agencies.")
Straus, M. A. (2007). Processes explaining the concealment and distortion of evidence on gender symmetry in partner violence. European Journal of Criminal Policy Research, 13, 227-232. (Focuses on methods used to conceal and distort evidence of gender symmetry in partner violence. These include the suppression of evidence, the avoidance of data inconsistent with "Patriarchal Dominance Theory," the obstruction of the publication of articles & the funding of research that might contradict the idea that male dominance in the cause of PV, and the harassment of researchers who produce evidence that contradicts feminist beliefs.)
Straus, M. A. (2008). Dominance and symmetry in partner violence by male and female university students in 32 nations. Children and Youth Services Review, 30, 252-275. (A convenience sample of 13,601 students <71.5%> at 68 universities in 32 countries completed the CTS2. Findings reveal that almost a third of students assaulted their dating partners in a 12 month period. In terms of initiation, mutual aggression accounted for 68.6% of physical violence, while women initiated violence 21.4% of the time and men initiated violence 9.9% of the time.)
Straus, M. A., & Gelles, R. J. (1986). Societal change and change in family violence from 1975 to 1985 as revealed by two national surveys. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 48, 465-479. (Reviewed data from two large sample national violence surveys of married couples and report that men and women assaulted each other at approximately equally rates, with women engaging in minor acts of violence at a higher rate than men. Sample size in 1975 survey=2,143; sample size in 1985 survey=6,002.)
Straus, M. A., Gelles, R. J., & Steinmetz, S. K. (1981). Behind closed doors: Violence in the American family, Garden City, NJ: Anchor. (Reports findings from National Family Violence survey conducted in 1975. In terms of religion, found that Jewish men had the lowest rates of abusive spousal violence (1%), while Jewish women had a rate of abusive spousal violence which was more than double the rate for Protestant women <7%>, pp. 128-133. Abusive violence was defined as an "act which has a high potential for injuring the person being hit," pp.21-2.)
Straus, M. A., Hamby, S. L., Boney-McCoy, S., & Sugarman, D. B. (1996). The Revised Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS2). Development and preliminary psychometric data. Journal of Family Issues, 17, 283-316. (The revised CTS has clearer differentiation between minor and severe violence and new scales to measure sexual coercion and physical injury. Used the CTS2 with a sample of 317 college students <114> and found that: 49% of men and 31% of women reported being a victim of physical assault by their partner; 38% of men and 30% of women reported being a victim of sexual coercion by their partner; and 16% of men and 14% of women reported being seriously injured by their partners.)
Straus, M. A., & Kaufman Kantor, G. (1994, July). Change in spouse assault rates from 1975-1992: A comparison of three national surveys in the United States. Paper presented at the Thirteenth World Congress of Sociology, Bielefeld, Germany. (Reports that the trend of decreasing severe assaults by husbands found in the National Survey from 1975 to 1985 has continued in the 1992 survey while wives maintained higher rates of assault.)
Straus, M. A., Kaufman Kantor, G., & Moore, D. W. (1994, August). Change in cultural norms approving marital violence from 1968 to 1994. Paper presented at the American Sociological Association, Los Angeles, CA. (Compared surveys conducted in 1968 , 1985 , 1992 , and 1994 , with regard to the approval of facial slapping by a spouse. Approval of slapping by husbands decreased from 21% in 1968 to 13% in 1985, to 12% in 1992, to 10% in 1994. The approval of slapping by wives was 22% in 1968 and has not declined over the years.)
Straus, M. A., & Medeiros, R. A. (2002, November). Gender differences in risk factors for physical violence between dating partners by university students. Paper presented at annual meeting of the American Society for Criminology, Chicago, Illinois. (A sample of 232 men and 334 women responded to revised CTS. Results indicate that for minor violence the rates for both men and women are 22% and for severe violence rates are 10% for men and 11% for women.)
Straus, M. A., & Mouradian, V. E. (1999, November). Preliminary psychometric data for the Personal Relationships Profile (PRP): A multi-scale tool for clinical screening and research on partner violence. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Society of Criminology, Toronto, Canada. (In a study of 1,034 dating couples at two US universities, injury rates based on responses to the revised CTS (CTS2) revealed that 9.9% of men and 9.4% of women report being injured by the opposite sex. In terms of inflicting injuries, 10.1% men and 8.0% women indicated that they inflicted injuries on their partners.)
Straus, M. A., & Ramirez, I. L. (2002, July). Gender symmetry in prevalence, severity, and chronicity of physical aggression against dating partners by university students in Mexico and USA. Aggressive Behavior, 33, 281-290. Available at: http://pubpages.unh.edu/~mas2/. (Reports findings from four samples of university students in Juarez, Mexico, El Paso and Lubbock, Texas, and New Hampshire. Subjects (N=1,554) responded to the revised Conflict Tactics Scale. Results indicate that there were no significant differences between males and females in either the overall prevalence of physical aggression or the prevalence of severe attacks. However, when only one partner was violent it was twice as likely to be the female than the male <19.0%>. Moreover, in terms of severe aggression females were twice as likely to be violent than men <29.8%>).
Straus, M. A., & Scott, K. (in press). Gender symmetry in partner violence: The evidence and implications for primary prevention and treatment. in J. R. Lutzker & D. J. Whitaker (eds.), Prevention of partner violence. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association. (A major review article which examines evidence for gender symmetry in partner abuse and presents recommendations for primary prevention.)
Sugarman, D. B., & Hotaling, G. T. (1989). Dating violence: Prevalence, context, and risk markers. In M. A. Pirog-Good & J. E. Stets (Eds.) Violence in dating relationships: Emerging social issues (pp.3-32). New York: Praeger. (Reviewed 21 studies of dating behavior and found that women reported having expressed violence at higher rates than men--329 per 1000 vs 393 per 1000.)
Sugihara, Y., & Warner, J. A. (2002). Dominance and domestic abuse among Mexican Americans: gender differences in the etiology of violence in intimate relationships. Journal of Family Violence, 17 (4), 315-340. (A sample of 316 Mexican Americans <161> were evaluated with the CTS2. Subjects' average age was in the mid 30's, most were married, and all were English-speakers. Results reveal no differences in the victimization of physical assaults <35%>. However, a greater percentage of men <14> reported physical injuries.)
Swaroop, S., & Dsouza, R. (September, 2007). Violence a home truth for India husbands. http://mynation.net/study-report-indianhusbands.htm (A sample of 1650 Indian husbands between the ages of 15 and 49 were interviewed regarding their experience with domestic violence. Authors report that 25.2% of men report being victims of physical violence.)
Swart, L. A., Stevens, M. S. G., & Ricardo, I. (2002). Violence in adolescents' romantic relationships: findings from a survey amongst school-going youth in a South African community. Journal of Adolescence, 25, 385-395. (A sample of 928 students <494> from 7 schools in South Africa completed a modified version of the CTS2. Results reveal that 35.3% of males and 43.5% of females reported perpetrating physical violence in a romantic relationship within a 12 month period prior to the survey.)
Symons, P. Y., Groer, M. W., Kepler-Youngblood, P., & Slater, V. (1994). Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, 7 (3) 14-23. (A sample of 561 rural North Carolina adolescents, predominantly female <77%> and 40% black and 58% white completed a scale assessing dating violence and family violence. Results reveal that boys were significantly more likely to experience dating violence than girls.)
Szinovacz, M. E. (1983). Using couple data as a methodological tool: The case of marital violence. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 45, 633-644. (Used Conflict Tactics Scale with 103 couples and found that the wives' rates of physical aggression was somewhat higher than husbands'.)
Tang, C. S. (1994). Prevalence of spouse aggression in Hong Kong. Journal of Family Violence, 9, 347-356. (Subjects were 382 undergraduates <246> at the Chinese University in Hong Kong. The CTS was used to assess students' evaluation of their parents responses during family conflict. 14% of students reported that their parents engaged in physical violence. "Mothers were as likely as fathers to use actual physical force toward their spouses.")
Tang, C. S. (1999). Marital power and aggression in a community sample of Hong Kong Chinese families. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 14 (6), 586-602. (A Hong Kong sample of 1,270 Chinese families <518> were assessed with the CTS. Across all conditions of marital power women were significantly more likely to perpetrate minor violence on their spouses. There was no significant differences in the perpetration of severe violence.)
Thompson Jr., E. H. (1990). Courtship violence and the male role. Men's Studies Review, 7 (3), 1, 4-13. (Subjects were 336 undergraduates <167> who completed a modified version of the CTS. Found that 24.6% of men compared to 28.4% of women expressed physical violence toward their dating partners within the past two years. Found that women were twice as likely as men to slap their partners.)
Thompson Jr., E. H. (1991). The maleness of violence in dating relationships: an appraisal of stereotypes. Sex Roles, 24, 261-278. (In a more extensive presentation of his 1990 article, the author concludes that, "a more masculine and/or less feminine gender orientation and variations in relationship seriousness proved to be the two strongest predictors of both men's and women's involvement in courtship violence.")
Titterington, V. B., & Harper, L. (2005). Women as the aggressors in intimate partner homicide in Houston, 1980s to 1990s. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 41 (4) 83-98. (Studied prevalence of intimate partner homicide in Houston from 1985-1999. Results reveal that women were "over 40% of the offenders in lethal domestic assaults. Both victims and offenders were disproportionately black . . . black women were equally (or more) likely than black men to be the perpetrators of intimate domestic homicide. Among non-Hispanic whites (including Asians, others) there were 63 female intimate partner homicide offenders for every 100 male offenders." In the small number of cases involving Hispanic couples, "women were more likely to be the aggressors in intimate partner homicide in the latter time period" of the study.)
Tjaden, P. & Thoennes, N. (2000). Prevalence and consequences of male-to-female and female-to-male intimate partner violence as measured by the National Violence Against Women Survey. Violence Against Women, 6, 142-161. (Telephone interviews using a modified version of the CTS was obtained from 6,934 men and 7,278 women regarding prevalence and consequences of partner violence. Authors report that women, over the course of their lives were 2.9 times more likely to report being physically assaulted than men. However, it should be noted that overall reported estimate of annual intimate partner violence for women of 1.4% is significantly lower than 11-12% estimates from earlier national surveys. Straus (1998) characterizes the data from this study as being flawed and inaccurate. He cites the wording of items as possibly creating "demand characteristics" that led subjects to view the survey as a study of crime and thus restrict their responses to exclude behavior considered harmless, especially minor assaults by women. Thus, he states this unintended demand characteristics probably account for the low prevalence rate and 3 to 1 ratio of male to female physical assaults.)
Tyree, A., & Malone, J. (1991). How can it be that wives hit husbands as much as husbands hit wives and none of us knew it? Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Sociological Association. (Reviews the literature and discusses results from their study attempting to predict spousal violence. Found that women's violence is correlated with a history of hitting siblings and a desire to improve contact with partners.)
Vasquez, D., & Falcone, R. (1997). Cross gender violence. Annals of Emergency Medicine, 29 (3), 427-429. (Reports equal cross gender violence treated at an Ohio trauma center during an 11 mouth period. Of 1,400 trauma admissions, 37 patients <18> sustained injuries inflicted by members of the opposite sex. The severity score of injury was higher for men than women, 11.4 vs 6.9. The majority of men were admitted for stab wounds, 72%; the majority of women for assault, 53%.)
Vivian, D., & Langhinrichsen-Rohling, J. (1996). Are bi-directionally violent couples mutually victimized? In L. K. Hamberger & C. Renzetti (Eds.) Domestic partner abuse (pp. 23-52). New York: Springer. (Authors found using a modified version of the CTS, that in a sample of 57 mutually aggressive couples, there were no significant differences between husbands' and wives' reports concerning the frequency and severity of assault victimization. With regard to injuries, 32 wives and 25 husbands reported the presence of a physical injury which resulted from partner aggression.)
Waiping, A. L., & Sporakowski, M. J. (1989). The continuation of violent dating relationships among college students. Journal of College Student Development, 30, 432-439. (Using a modified version of the CTS, authors examined courtship violence in a sample of 422 college students <227>. Women more often than men <35.3%> indicated that they physically abused their partners.)
Watson, J. M., Cascardi, M., Avery-Leaf, S., & O'Leary, K. D. (2001). High school students' responses to dating aggression. Victims and Violence, 16 (3), 339-348. (Using a modified version of the CTS, authors examined dating violence in a multi-ethnic sample <43%> of New York high school students <266>. Overall, 45.6% of students reported experiencing physical aggression from a current or past dating partner. There were significant differences in self-reported rates of victimization: African-American 60%, Caucasian 47% and Hispanic 41%. The only ethnic group that showed significant gender differences were Hispanics, with females showing higher rates of victimization.)
Whitaker, D. J., Haileyesus, T., Swahn, M., & Saltzman, L. S. (2007). Differences in frequency of violence and reported injury between relationships with reciprocal and nonreciprocal intimate partner violence. American Journal of Public Health, 97, 941-947. (A sample of 11,370 young adults <46%> aged 18-28, who were drawn from the 2001 National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, responded to a modified version of the CTS. Results indicate that almost 24% of all relationships had some physical violence and that half the violence was reciprocal. In non-reciprocally violent relationships, women were the perpetrators 70% of the time. While overall, women were somewhat more likely to be injured than men, the authors report that, "in fact, men in relationships with reciprocal violence were reportedly injured more often <25.2%> than were women in relationships with nonreciprocal violence <20.0%>.)
White, J. W., & Humphrey, (1994). Women's aggression in heterosexual conflicts. Aggressive Behavior, 20, 195-202. (Eight hundred and twenty nine women 17 and 18 years old, entering the university for the first time completed the CTS and other assessment instruments. Results reveal that 51.5% of subjects used physical aggression at least once in their prior dating relationships and, in the past year, 30.2% reported physically aggressing against their male partners. Past use of physical aggression was the best predictor of current aggression. The witnessing and experiencing of parental aggression also predicted present aggression.)
White, J. W., & Kowalski, R. M. (1994). Deconstructing the myth of the nonaggressive woman: A feminist analysis. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 18, 487-508. (A review and analysis which acknowledges that "women equal or exceed men in number of reported aggressive acts committed within the family." Examines a variety of explanations to account for such aggression.)
White, J. W., & Koss, M. P. (1991). Courtship violence: Incidence in a national sample of higher education students. Violence and Victims, 6, 247-256. (In a representative sample of 2,603 women and 2,105 men it was found that 37% of the men and 35% of women inflicted some form of physical aggression, while 39% of the men and 32% of the women received some form of physical aggression.)
Williams, S. L., & Frieze, I. (2005a). Courtship behaviors, relationship violence, and breakup persistence in college men and women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 29, 248-257. (A sample of college students <215> responded to the revised Conflict Tactics Scale, CTS2. Results revealed that women were significantly more likely than men to engage in mild (40% vs 23%) and severe (14% vs 4%) acts of violence with their partners.)
Williams, S. L., & Frieze, I. H. (2005b). Patterns of violent relationships, psychological distress, and marital satisfaction in a national sample of men and women. Sex Roles, 52 (11/12), 771-784. (Data from a National Comorbidity Survey was examined. In a sample of 3,519 men and women it was found that 18.4% were involved in a violent relationship. Most violence, both mild and severe, was mutual. However, women were more likely than men to initiate both mild and severe violence.)
Wilson, M. I. & Daley, M. (1992). Who kills whom in spouse killings? On the exceptional sex ratio of spousal homicides in the United States. Criminology, 30, 189-215. (Authors summarize research which indicates that between 1976 and 1985, for every 100 men who killed their wives, about 75 women killed their husbands. Authors report original data from a number of cities, e.g., Chicago, Detroit, Houston, where the ratio of wives as perpetrators exceeds that of husbands.)
Portions of this paper were presented at the American Psychological Society Convention in Washington, D.C. May 24, 1997.
Earlier versions of this paper appeared in Sexuality and Culture, 1997, 1, 273-286, and Sexuality and Culture, 2004, 8, (No. 3-4), 140-177.
Earlier versions of this paper appeared in Sexuality and Culture, 1997, 1, 273-286, and Sexuality and Culture, 2004, 8, (No. 3-4), 140-177.
Special thanks to Diane Roe for her assistance in updating this bibliography.
Copyright, 2008. Martin S. Fiebert
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